Public Latrines in Ancient Rome

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  • Опубликовано: 21 ноя 2024

Комментарии • 3,1 тыс.

  • @Ntyler01mil
    @Ntyler01mil 2 года назад +4263

    I don't think I've ever seen a local business sponsor a RUclips video before. It's rather refreshing.

    • @chillzedd8179
      @chillzedd8179 2 года назад +578

      Woosh Pipe & Drains > Raid Shadow Legends

    • @toldinstone
      @toldinstone  2 года назад +1194

      Yes, I'm very glad Steve was willing to give it a try. I'd much rather help a small business than be just another member of a huge corporate ad campaign.

    • @enkonu
      @enkonu 2 года назад +62

      @@chillzedd8179 hell yeah

    • @rb3872
      @rb3872 2 года назад +132

      @@toldinstone I almost made a call, but apparently he is not serving in the Netherlands.
      Now imagine a plumber cleaning out these latrines. Can't think of much worse jobs. Although they prolly had slaves to do that.

    • @abrahamg4857
      @abrahamg4857 2 года назад +58

      I didn't fast forward through it.... It was pretty neat

  • @panqueque445
    @panqueque445 2 года назад +2396

    I am delighted to learn that the art of leaving messages in public bathrooms is, in fact, ancient.

    • @ynp1978
      @ynp1978 2 года назад +76

      They paint these walls to silence my pen....but the shit house poet strikes again!

    • @alfx5432
      @alfx5432 2 года назад +13

      😂

    • @tallyflower1337
      @tallyflower1337 2 года назад +8

      LOL, LOL, LOL, LOL!

    • @boxoffisa
      @boxoffisa 2 года назад +9

      @@ynp1978 lmao

    • @justinjohnson85
      @justinjohnson85 2 года назад +8

      @John Smith 😂😂😂😂

  • @ChildOfAshes1
    @ChildOfAshes1 2 года назад +758

    The things we don't even realize we take for granted. These obscure pieces of history are SO fascinating to me.

    • @mchrysogelos7623
      @mchrysogelos7623 2 года назад +9

      Oh believe me! I DON'T take any of this for granted!! I have always researched about these kinds of things. so interesting.

    • @SerlingPictures
      @SerlingPictures 2 года назад +7

      Evidently you've never shit inside a Walmart or Dollar Tree because those bathrooms make these look like something from the plaza hotel. I've been gawked at countless times mid-wipe and walked in on as someone easily pushed through the stall door that was modified with a fucking chain lock they grabbed from the hardware section.

    • @tylerdurdenstronghltv8565
      @tylerdurdenstronghltv8565 2 года назад +4

      They still do it in India in 2022

    • @Lorimars319
      @Lorimars319 2 года назад

      Fascinating to me also!

    • @1112viggo
      @1112viggo 2 года назад

      Maybe they should make a toilet history museum, how would you like that?

  • @wooshpipeanddrainco.2606
    @wooshpipeanddrainco.2606 2 года назад +1216

    You have to appreciate modern plumbing... I couldn't imagine octopi, snakes, explosions and wiping with rocks! Ouch. Another great video. Educational and Entertaining as always.

    • @foowashere
      @foowashere 2 года назад +52

      Thanks for the sponsorship, it was like a breath of fresh air. 👍

    • @21stcenturyozman20
      @21stcenturyozman20 2 года назад +10

      octopodes (pron. octo-POH-deez); no such word as 'octopi'.

    • @DrBaldhead
      @DrBaldhead 2 года назад +7

      Loved the sponsorship!

    • @awaitingthetrumpetcall4529
      @awaitingthetrumpetcall4529 2 года назад +7

      Thanks for sponsoring this video. A few years ago I was curious about toilets in other parts of the world. What did people do before there was toilet paper?
      There are squat toilets in Japan. In the desert there are holes. People bring a cup of water and clean themselves with their left hand. A sign of disrespect is if they offer to shake your left hand.

    • @ComradeHeydi
      @ComradeHeydi 2 года назад +26

      @@21stcenturyozman20 deez? Deez nuts?

  • @brichess8227
    @brichess8227 2 года назад +1866

    having the tolilets randomly shoot flame is definitely one way to get everyone to use them faster I guess

    • @JOlivier2011
      @JOlivier2011 2 года назад +100

      As someone with IBS I feel attacked

    • @eTraxx
      @eTraxx 2 года назад +63

      I remember the toilets we had in Desert Shield. They were .. communal .. and the receptacle was the bottom of a 55 gal drum filled with diesel. One of the duties we got was to pull the receptacles out and burn the contents. That was not that bad in the winter as long as you kept upwind.

    • @sagapoetic8990
      @sagapoetic8990 2 года назад +46

      @@eTraxx I worked as a Peace Corps volunteer in a Central Asian village where everyone had outhouses. I used to tease my neighbors if anyone in the village had ever fallen into the hole in the wooden floor we used. They loved that quirky question -- only a foreigner would think of that, I used to hear xD

    • @clarkelliott5389
      @clarkelliott5389 2 года назад +44

      Perhaps this is where the expression, "flaming a**hole" came from! ;

    • @daos3300
      @daos3300 2 года назад +9

      at least explosions would get rid of the smell, albeit temporarily.

  • @roddydykes7053
    @roddydykes7053 2 года назад +101

    This is one of those things that makes me grateful to live in modern times more than any other bit of trivia

    • @oneshortgamer2540
      @oneshortgamer2540 Год назад

      i would rather live then lol

    • @sweetestaphrodite
      @sweetestaphrodite Год назад

      @@oneshortgamer2540Why?

    • @oneshortgamer2540
      @oneshortgamer2540 Год назад +2

      @@sweetestaphrodite mainly curiosity and fro all studies, i want to experience their life

    • @tulipbubbly3748
      @tulipbubbly3748 7 месяцев назад +3

      ​@@oneshortgamer2540you have lived that life. In your past lives. We all have.

    • @mschimpanzee2023
      @mschimpanzee2023 5 месяцев назад

      proof?

  • @noobie64
    @noobie64 2 года назад +1219

    Having worked in the wastewater industry for 20 years it always interests me how different civilizations deal with the inevitable waste of large populations in one place. The Romans seemed to have had a pretty good infrastructure and understanding that buildup of sewage is a main factor in disease transmission. An insight which is exceedingly obvious to us today but as recently as early Victorian London was . complete mystery.

    • @SuWoopSparrow
      @SuWoopSparrow 2 года назад +61

      The Arab world was the first to have flushing toilets, as far as I know. I'm surprised it took the rest of the world a while to catch on.

    • @JaneAustenAteMyCat
      @JaneAustenAteMyCat 2 года назад +26

      @@SuWoopSparrow really? That's fascinating! Whereabouts and when?

    • @worldcomicsreview354
      @worldcomicsreview354 2 года назад +126

      The Roman idea of balancing the "humours" in the body led to be some surprisingly effective medicine, though it was succesful by accident. Part of the Renassance was the rediscovery of Roman medical knowledge. There was an account from the Crimean War of the fire normally used to cauterise amputations going out, so the doctor was "reduced to" using a roman ointment containing wine and egg whites (I imagine, in the 19th century British Army, that rum was substituted for the wine), and tying off the blood vessels with silk string. When he checked later, all the soldiers who'd haf the Roman treatment were sleeping peacefully, while all the ones who'd been cauterised with red-hot metal were in agony or dead.

    • @a.wenger3964
      @a.wenger3964 2 года назад +36

      Of course we have a natural aversion to such horrible smells, but it's interesting how some ancient communities came together so they didn't have to toss their excrement onto the street (and sometimes each other). I don't think the romans really had an advanced understanding of how sewage caused diseases though.

    • @mitchellbarnow1709
      @mitchellbarnow1709 2 года назад +28

      @@a.wenger3964 They just knew that it was nasty and stanky!

  • @benbrazaski8470
    @benbrazaski8470 2 года назад +389

    Something most people don’t talk about in conversation, but something that everyone has to deal with. An amazing video as always.

    • @leonardodavid2842
      @leonardodavid2842 2 года назад +5

      Not all do. But those who don’t… oh, they really badly wish they did.

    • @organ9998
      @organ9998 2 года назад +1

      @@leonardodavid2842 what??

    • @BlokeBritish
      @BlokeBritish 2 года назад +4

      @@organ9998 his mind just switched off there for 5 secs and he scribbled that

    • @JuicyJenitals
      @JuicyJenitals 2 года назад +1

      Another thing about the Roman Empire is how it fulfilled the role of the beast from the sea in Revelation 13. Revelation 17 confirms that it is in fact Rome. There is a website called "RevelationTimelineDecoded" that explains this, there is also a video here on youtube called "From Babylon to America" by SchoolForProphets. What we can conclude from this is that A) God is real and Jesus is His son, not only that but He can predict the future or make it happen or B) The Nations, governments, and rulers have been conspiring together for the last 3000+ years to accomplish this strange "roadmap" setup by the Israelites. It is still ongoing to with th rebirth of Israel in 1948 to the allying of Russia and Iran (Gog and Magog + Persia) to the new RFID microchips that Sweden is testing out right now.
      You don't really need to speculate on this because you can start a relationship with God and have proof. Pray for Him to intervene in your life and look for the motion of His hand. Take full advantage of every moment you have to better yourself and the others around you. Repent and follow Jesus!

    • @1112viggo
      @1112viggo 2 года назад +1

      @@BlokeBritish lol he is making a joke about constipation... How do people not get that?

  • @conradnelson5283
    @conradnelson5283 Год назад +30

    I’m 72 and remember using an outhouse at my best friends home. It was very strange seeing all the poop and stuff at the bottom and we used a seers catalog to wipe with. In the summer it was smelly and in the winter it was very cold.

    • @FlatlandMando
      @FlatlandMando 8 месяцев назад +1

      seers possibly should have their own catalog too but likely the company " Sears" provided the toilet paper unwittingly...

    • @sonjak8265
      @sonjak8265 7 месяцев назад

      Squatting is good for you. It develops muscles and prevents hemorrhoids.

  • @rampagephoenix1735
    @rampagephoenix1735 2 года назад +349

    The fact that even something like Bathroom Graffiti has its own ancient history is what I find extraordinarily amusing.

    • @Perririri
      @Perririri 2 года назад

      *BIGGVS DICKVS SHAT HERE*

    • @sorestedhebytheTumtumtree
      @sorestedhebytheTumtumtree 2 года назад +2

      Right... Hahah that was funny

    • @steelwitness
      @steelwitness 2 года назад +21

      and the fact that a doctor was writing how well he crapped lmao he was like "damn thats the biggest shit ive ever taken gotta leave a note on the wall"

    • @ammagnolia
      @ammagnolia 2 года назад +8

      @@steelwitness and now some random dude is laughing at it in 2022. And nodding with approval of it

    • @cjmacq-vg8um
      @cjmacq-vg8um Год назад +6

      "here i sit all broken hearted, tried to shit but only farted." i wonder just old that line is?
      common indoor plumbing and chocolate are the two things i'm most thankful for living in "modern" times. otherwise we're pretty much just as screwed up as they were 2000 years ago. oh, i am glad crucifixion has fallen out of favor.

  • @unclejoe7466
    @unclejoe7466 2 года назад +601

    Without the statues and marble floors, I just can't perform. Seriously, though, my underground terra cotta pipes have tree roots in them -- not fun. Thanks, Steve and Toldinstone!

    • @unclejoe7466
      @unclejoe7466 2 года назад +43

      About the statues and marble floors, no. About the terra cotta sewer line, yes -- clay pipes were commonly used for underground sewer lines until the 50's and 60's. Still are in some places. It's usually more common in places where it can be manufactured locally, since it is heavy. My line is 4 inches inner diameter, 4 foot lenghts, with mortared bell end joints. The roots work their way into the joints to find the sweet stuff inside. Sorry if this is more than you wanted to know.

    • @finonevado8891
      @finonevado8891 2 года назад +15

      @@unclejoe7466 fascinating

    • @patrickgaimari4478
      @patrickgaimari4478 2 года назад +5

      Bulshit, there where wooden partitions. These stories are made up by what Romans called barbarian

    • @unclejoe7466
      @unclejoe7466 2 года назад +8

      @@patrickgaimari4478 The Vandals kept breaking the partitions.

    • @therealhellkitty5388
      @therealhellkitty5388 2 года назад +10

      You’d think shy bladder syndrome would be more of an issue under the gaze of statues…

  • @darkhelmutt3417
    @darkhelmutt3417 Год назад +7

    That was the only in-video ad I haven’t skipped through

  • @The_Captainn
    @The_Captainn 2 года назад +31

    The plumbing ad is honestly fantastic

  • @allanconnor1013
    @allanconnor1013 2 года назад +58

    These Roman latrines are very similar to the toilet facilities at an army camp I had the pleasure of attending in Cultybraggan in Scotland. The structure consisted of a long clay (not terracotta regretably) pipe approximately two feet in diameter with a hole every four feet or so with burlap between each aperture to ensure one's privacy and comfort. Water constantly flowed through the pipe to remove its contents. On occasion some of the camp's more mischevious inhabitants would activate a ThunderFlash (military grade pyrotechinical device) and float it in the flowing sewage so that its explosive nature might entertain or even motivate the latrine's occupants.

    • @cindydott452
      @cindydott452 2 года назад +7

      My dad once told me that when he was a young man, he and some friends went to Mexico. They found a place that had a stream of water flowing along the bottom of the bar. After a while they noticed that the locals "Used" this steam. It was a very public urinal! You didn't have to leave, and could keep on drinking while doin' your thing! My mom yelled at him for telling me about it.
      LOL!

    • @jonfallis305
      @jonfallis305 9 месяцев назад

      cultybraggan, have visited in 1980s while on exercise, a very basic site!

  • @smartysmarty1714
    @smartysmarty1714 8 месяцев назад +45

    "Pardon me sir, but could I wash my hands in that basin?" "Of course, just as soon as I finish washing this ass sponge".....

    • @AS-qg1xu
      @AS-qg1xu 8 месяцев назад +4

      😂

    • @MesoScale
      @MesoScale 6 месяцев назад

      "Oh splendid! Mind if I park my used ass stones here while I wait?"

  • @mitchellbarnow1709
    @mitchellbarnow1709 2 года назад +39

    Garrett, I really want to thank you for broaching this subject that is often overlooked. In our modern movies, TV shows and everywhere else, we never seem to see what people do when they have to poop, especially when they are constipated or have diarrhea.

    • @archangelliii2536
      @archangelliii2536 2 года назад

      Archaeologists and historians have found drawings of ancient folks having sex and what have you. I'm pretty sure there has to be drawings of folks pooping somewhere!!

  • @jared1870
    @jared1870 2 года назад +124

    Ok, kudos for making this topic, entertaining. Octupus, snakes, flames, advice and graffiti. At least the last item hasn't changed since then.

    • @pixelpatter01
      @pixelpatter01 2 года назад +5

      Too much time to contemplate while you're sitting there. LOL

    • @backalleycqc4790
      @backalleycqc4790 2 года назад +6

      Yes, and at 5:38, the movie "Demolition Man" was right to have three shells at their latrines, who woulda thunk it? 🤣🤣

  • @JDsVarietyChannel
    @JDsVarietyChannel 2 года назад +59

    I have a house built in 1886, and I found a chamber pot in the ditch in the backyard with my metal detector. People have been using those things right up to the days when modern plumbing started being installed. Haha

    • @TheIVJackal
      @TheIVJackal 2 года назад +2

      Life's modern comforts in developed countries! I was just thinking how lucky we are to not be dealing with this in ancient times, yet many poor countries actually still do 😔

    • @SantiagOnline
      @SantiagOnline 2 года назад

      septic tank?

    • @chonconnor6144
      @chonconnor6144 Год назад

      Definitely, 2 of my grandparents grew up without modern plumbing. Chamber pots and outhouses/long drops were standard.

    • @beatlesboy95
      @beatlesboy95 Год назад

      That's not an old house mate

    • @bozomahoney
      @bozomahoney 8 месяцев назад +1

      I used them in the 70s on the farm

  • @regularperson9965
    @regularperson9965 2 года назад +277

    Imagine deciding to build a private latrine but then you just feel like a two seater would be more preferable.

    • @hamdiatasoy2456
      @hamdiatasoy2456 2 года назад +3

      Couples who shit together stay together.

    • @skinmanikin
      @skinmanikin 2 года назад +22

      ...and you can share your sponge with whoever joins you xD lol

    • @nullifye7816
      @nullifye7816 2 года назад +47

      romans liked being sociable, you'd want to have someone to talk philosophy and military strategy with for entertainment. And since women used the same toilets, who knows? you might meet the girl of your dreams and get a sneak preview to boot.

    • @remilenoir1271
      @remilenoir1271 Год назад +13

      @@nullifye7816 I heard romans liked to breath and eat as well.

    • @gail2500
      @gail2500 Год назад +2

      @@nullifye7816 that's funny, but takes all the mystery out, doesn't it!!🤔🇦🇺

  • @gourdtube
    @gourdtube 2 года назад +38

    Very interesting sponsor! for the first time ever I wish i had a reason to support that business because they're supporting a creator I like. I guess your average sponsor (like Raycon - high quality wireless headphones that rival any major brand) does the same thing but, it never has the honest ring to it that Woosh does on this one.

  •  2 года назад +5

    AWESOME!! THANK YOU!!! THAT WAS VERY INTERESTING!! and thanks for the SPONSOR also!!!

  • @nonnius2861
    @nonnius2861 2 года назад +251

    I work in construction in London, which was then but a glint in the eye of the venerable Roman empire . Clay pipes from our Victorian era, and occasionally earlier, are still doing sterling service, where undisturbed, to most of the suburbs of this city.
    Please don't knock the humble fired clay sewage pipe. When properly buried, you can generally leave it alone for 100+ years with minimal maintenance.

    • @clarkpagels5471
      @clarkpagels5471 2 года назад +33

      In New York, they are still using some wooden pipes from the colonial era.

    • @sagapoetic8990
      @sagapoetic8990 2 года назад +5

      @@clarkpagels5471 Wow. I had no idea, being from Queens myself. Do you per chance know what kind of wood??

    • @daos3300
      @daos3300 2 года назад +25

      @@sagapoetic8990 stinkwood?

    • @IvySnowFillyVideos
      @IvySnowFillyVideos 2 года назад +8

      Its new york I'm sure they recycle. Wooden salad bowl anyone?

    • @Alex-rx7lt
      @Alex-rx7lt 2 года назад +1

      😂

  • @YAH2121
    @YAH2121 2 года назад +157

    Learning about ancient toilets really make you appreciate modern plumbing

    • @MelB868
      @MelB868 Год назад +1

      By thumbnail my bottom is too big for that tiny hole

    • @GetYouStretchedGang
      @GetYouStretchedGang Год назад

      Thank you africa

    • @rubberroast1598
      @rubberroast1598 Год назад +3

      I'm a civil engineer and and 'modern' plumbing isn't really that modern at all. Same mechanics as past 150+ years. place water in a high tower creating gravitational water pressure, to the underlying buildings and taps. No electricity, heat or digital computers needed!! remarkable

    • @gabrielex
      @gabrielex 10 месяцев назад

      Actually the plumbing works made by Romans was top of the class, probably better than some crappy plumbing you can see sometimes today...

  • @brianthesnail3815
    @brianthesnail3815 2 года назад +108

    I lived in a farmhouse when I was a child that had stood there and rebuilt in parts several times over since Middle ages. The outside toilet in a small brick built room slightly separate from the main house had a porcelain WC from the late Victorian era in it but its construction was very clearly an earth closet. I used it often and interesting that in its original form Medieval monks had used that very same small room for the very same purpose.

    • @lede1810
      @lede1810 2 года назад +3

      In which country?

    • @brianthesnail3815
      @brianthesnail3815 2 года назад +9

      @@lede1810 England

    • @lede1810
      @lede1810 2 года назад +5

      @@brianthesnail3815 wow, sounds interesting. Thanks!

    • @Herr_Flick_of_ze_Gestapo
      @Herr_Flick_of_ze_Gestapo 2 года назад +5

      medieval abbeys in the UK had large communal latrines just like the romans did. with running water under it to take the waste away.

    • @brianthesnail3815
      @brianthesnail3815 2 года назад +4

      @@Herr_Flick_of_ze_Gestapo Yes Fountains Abbey in Yorkshire is near where my parent's farmhouse was. Our farm belong to the monks of Fountains Abbey back in the middle ages and acted as a sort of stopping off guest house when they were travelling. We still had the special carved stones near the front door that were the sign that it was a safe place to stay.

  • @hugodesrosiers-plaisance3156
    @hugodesrosiers-plaisance3156 2 года назад +6

    This the first time that I whole heartedly stand behind an advertisement in a youtube video. Very nice sponsorship idea.

  • @Frank-mm2yp
    @Frank-mm2yp 2 года назад +290

    Roman life in general, for the vast majority of Romans, was unpleasant, dim, crowded and reeking. So the opportunity to do one's business in the relative "comfort" of their public latrines must have seemed, to the "average" Roman, to be one of the hall marks of an advanced civilization.

    • @mauriceschaeffer5070
      @mauriceschaeffer5070 2 года назад +40

      True indeed. It can be argued living a seemingly hunter gatherer life was and still is the best for human liberty.

    • @nokomarie1963
      @nokomarie1963 2 года назад +12

      @@mauriceschaeffer5070 and decreased parasitical load!

    • @reeyees50
      @reeyees50 2 года назад +52

      pretty sure the ideas of personal space, hygiene and cleanliness most certainly inherited from the Roman practices, though rudimental, gave us public bathrooms, spas and bathing everyday. Hunter gatherers on the other hand have to put up with things we modern people will never imagine doing.

    • @daos3300
      @daos3300 2 года назад +15

      ​@@reeyees50 if you've ever been camping (properly, not in horrendous 'organised' camp sites) you'll know that crapping in nature is one of the more pleasant and sustainable ways of dealing with human waste. just like a traditional outhouse, solid and liquid waste is separated leading to very little bad smell, and excrement quickly biodegrades and makes excellent compost.

    • @reeyees50
      @reeyees50 2 года назад +41

      @@daos3300 im colombian, you get flies up yo ass when crapping in the wild. Cant relax or read. All you can do is get it done as quickly as possible and more on. Pure barbarism

  • @xxxxxx-tq4mw
    @xxxxxx-tq4mw 9 месяцев назад +5

    I remember these in the u.s. army barracks. They caused a lot of consternation, and constipation until absolutely necessary, and gotten used to.

    • @leoray1234
      @leoray1234 4 месяца назад

      Are you saying army barracks resembled Roman latrines?

  • @Dionaea_floridensis
    @Dionaea_floridensis 2 года назад +42

    "chamber pot shrapnel" sounds like a metal band

    • @rickb3078
      @rickb3078 2 года назад +7

      They’d be the opening act to cradle of filth:

    • @keefsmiff
      @keefsmiff 6 месяцев назад +1

      I love the tracks
      1. "Ode to the Porcelain Throne"
      2. "Sharin' the Bowl with Beelzebub" and 3. "Don't Drop the Dookie in the Mosh Pit" from the first album

  • @ickabod_crank
    @ickabod_crank 2 года назад +236

    The smell of emptying of the chamber pot out the window is similar to the streets of San Francisco.

    • @SrGemmaRose
      @SrGemmaRose 2 года назад +25

      I don’t think he was trying to be racist. It’s just than San Fran has a huge population of homeless individuals that have no access to toilets. And so there is a lot of public urination and dedication on the city streets. Not blaming on race or anything. It’s really such a sad situation.

    • @hellswindstaff91
      @hellswindstaff91 2 года назад +9

      same thing in Santa Monica i learned the hard way a month ago

    • @goodone5590
      @goodone5590 Год назад +5

      You can use the waste to power Energy Powerplant!

    • @thelastboomer9088
      @thelastboomer9088 Год назад +19

      The people I’ve seen in San Francisco are from all races. I don’t think the comment was racist but rather indicative of the stench such a large homeless population creates. Your comment is an example of overuse of the accusation and hence it’s loss of any significant value.

    • @ickabod_crank
      @ickabod_crank Год назад

      @@thelastboomer9088 what are you talking about? You are reading into something that exists only in your mind. Quit with the race card. You sound like have fallen victim to the propaganda. The streets of San Francisco is a cess pool of filth. Go there and experience it yourself. Society has gone to hell and making excuses for it is how it has gotten us here. Have the courage to think outside of the narrative. Let’s make things better where and who we are. Not worse by falling for the lies that have indoctrinated so many many people.

  • @xylerian
    @xylerian 2 года назад +2

    That bit at the end about Fortuna cracked me up. Great video!

  • @peternakitch4167
    @peternakitch4167 2 года назад +31

    I mis-read the title as ‘Public libraries in ancient Rome’. An occupational hazard, I still watched.

  • @PinballCollection
    @PinballCollection 2 года назад +52

    Nothing makes pooping more pleasant than direct eye contact with your homies.

  • @basicallydan
    @basicallydan 2 года назад +3

    One of my fave things about this video is the local sponsor. Nice.

  • @moosegonemad9460
    @moosegonemad9460 2 года назад +77

    Shout out to Steve in Queens. I hope he gets some business from this! It's a great video idea :D

    • @glennmcgee1729
      @glennmcgee1729 2 года назад +11

      Steve is number one in the number two business.

    • @10z20
      @10z20 2 года назад +1

      Such an unusual and charming sponsorship!

    • @meenam300zx
      @meenam300zx 2 года назад +1

      You may not have an snake in your toilet but call Steve if you need to snake out your plugged toilet.

  • @socalindi8241
    @socalindi8241 2 года назад +258

    Honestly this situation is far better than what I experienced in the 70's on Indian reservations. A wood shack with 10 holes cut-out and both men and women sat there. Scary as heck for a kid to go inside that thing.

    • @wujekzwanny630
      @wujekzwanny630 2 года назад +24

      sorry to hear that mate!

    • @agirlisnoone5953
      @agirlisnoone5953 2 года назад +27

      Did you wipe with rocks? Were there fiery explosions? Animals coming out of those holes? I very much doubt it was worse than these in the video. Bad, yes. Worse? Nah

    • @socalindi8241
      @socalindi8241 2 года назад +87

      @@agirlisnoone5953 Really?! As a 7 year old kid seeing adult genitals was scary.

    • @agirlisnoone5953
      @agirlisnoone5953 2 года назад +10

      @@socalindi8241 yeah, but not worse than the Romans.

    • @sergioperez2771
      @sergioperez2771 2 года назад +48

      @@socalindi8241 Nice of "no one," who experienced neither circumstance, to tell you how bad you really didn't have it.

  • @markcarson1844
    @markcarson1844 2 года назад +3

    Great video and added comments to bring some humor to this subject.

  • @Atlasbr001
    @Atlasbr001 2 года назад +6

    5:30 so the 3 seashells from demolition man were actually a retro throwback lmao

  • @nefariousorator
    @nefariousorator 2 года назад +43

    The local sponsor was incredible. Loved it. If I was anywhere near their service area I would be a customer now. Also, excellent video as always!

    • @aka99
      @aka99 2 года назад +1

      wooooosh.....

  • @bloodandguts6586
    @bloodandguts6586 2 года назад +21

    I think what is even more impressive is the modern open air public latrine design in San Fransico.

  • @locutus1126
    @locutus1126 2 года назад +298

    About 20 years ago, I was in Italy and visiting my Aunt's who's house goes back over 100 years, but renovated up to current standards. They still kept the out house as a memorial and amazing to see that. A simple thing we take for granted and 100 years ago, they had to dump outside. My gramps made a foot pump bidet where a barrel of rain water was used to clean up. What started as a stone house, now has electricity, indoor plumbing, radiant heat only due to no duct work and a paved road in front. We piss and moan about the silliest things now. Trying going back 100 or so years and enjoy shitting in a pit and dirty water pumped from a well or the whole family sharing the same basin for washing.

    • @BlokeBritish
      @BlokeBritish 2 года назад

      @David u r not far far far from the truth

    • @locutus1126
      @locutus1126 2 года назад +8

      @David true, but her, my dad and other 2 siblings, plus their dad lived into 90s living with bare necessities

    • @the_forbinproject2777
      @the_forbinproject2777 2 года назад +1

      if X-rebels get their way we'll be going back further than that to save the planet!

    • @myfighthere
      @myfighthere 2 года назад +7

      My grandma's house (where I lived for a good half of my childhood) had an outhouse even 25 years ago!
      My parents have an "optional" one (in addition to indoor plumbing) even now! And my school had a communal outhouse sort of like this one, too 😶 (No wonder I preferred to "hold it in" for 6 hours!) 😄

    • @SouthernOregonOrgani
      @SouthernOregonOrgani 2 года назад +1

      My mom has told me the exact same situation for when she visited family in spain in the country side in the 1960's! No running water, to electricity, and a hole in the ground to do your business. How far we have come, its amazing the privilege's we have now.

  • @MrAwawe
    @MrAwawe 2 года назад +5

    That has to be one of the best sponsor spots I've ever seen. If I ever need plumbing done in queens I'll know who to call.

  • @datboiderrty
    @datboiderrty 2 года назад +2

    Over a million views for an ancient public restroom. Amazing

  • @mikew3194
    @mikew3194 2 года назад +5

    "chamber pot shrapnel" - My dude, I've enjoyed your free content long enough, I'm absolutely grabbing a copy of your book when I can, you're a fantastic writer lol

  • @jerryulrich2637
    @jerryulrich2637 2 года назад +9

    I usually skip over embedded ads but seeing one for a neighborhood specific small business is very charming.

  • @g.g.1663
    @g.g.1663 Год назад +5

    Some scholars believe that the sponge was use to clean the facilities, not for cleaning every user after sitting on them, like it is done today in some places.

  • @romanchavez8758
    @romanchavez8758 2 года назад +16

    Being woken up to a new toldinstone video is the best feeling in the world!

    • @jonatandec7083
      @jonatandec7083 2 года назад

      It's 20:30 in my country, so I cannot share that pleasure

    • @N00B283
      @N00B283 2 года назад +2

      @@jonatandec7083 hello fellow European👋🏽

    • @jonatandec7083
      @jonatandec7083 2 года назад +2

      @@N00B283 ah i see you're a man of culture as well

    • @jeffb.140
      @jeffb.140 2 года назад +2

      Just in time for a stiff drink!

    • @rb3872
      @rb3872 2 года назад

      Still a virgin I see?! :P

  • @edwardschneider5135
    @edwardschneider5135 2 года назад +19

    Many thanks for another witty, gentle, and informative look into the Roman world. Your humor continues to delight me and my husband, and your scholarship continues to engage and inform us. You have a lovely gift for storytelling. Thank you for sharing it.
    I remember how uncomfortable I was when I first encountered a Roman public toilet - I think it was in Ephesus, but I can't remember for sure offhand. I realized at the time how different my toilet cultural sensibilities differed from those of the Romans. Your video brought those memories back this evening. You've given me another gift by prodding me out of my comfort zone.
    My husband suggests a video on the typical items found in an agora and forum, and the typical items for sale elsewhere outside the market places.
    We look forward to your next video, no matter what the subject.

  • @MichaelBrown-ny3et
    @MichaelBrown-ny3et Год назад +4

    The Army used these into the late 80’s at basic training sites, in particular Ft. Campbell, KY.

  • @cerberus6654
    @cerberus6654 2 года назад +70

    I'm pretty sure I've read in a number of sources that if the Vigiles caught someone emptying a chamber pot out of a window they would fine that person and that landlords always kept an eye out for any tenants upstairs who did that. And, that most people (presumable men) made use of vats placed on most streetcorners.

    • @elfarlaur
      @elfarlaur 2 года назад +16

      Yeah that's true. A professor told me it was especially common to dump out the window at night though since it was more convenient then going out to empty the chamber pot and you're less likely to get caught. Thankfully you're less likely to dump it on someone then as well.

    • @toldinstone
      @toldinstone  2 года назад +57

      Yes, people weren't supposed to empty their chamber pots out the window, and there were regulations forbidding it (as far as we can tell) in most Roman cities. But human nature being what it is, it seems to have happened with distressing frequency.

    • @sagapoetic8990
      @sagapoetic8990 2 года назад +10

      @@toldinstone Is there an old Sicilian or maybe it is an old Italian custom where men would walk on the outside and have women walk inside (closer to the building) and men would then catch most of whatever might be carelessly tossed from an overhead window or balcony? What a fascinating and fun video -- I can imagine the sponsor in Astoria greatly appreciate this, too. It was so interesting to watch this, thank you again

    • @charlottekey8856
      @charlottekey8856 2 года назад +1

      @@sagapoetic8990 I would think the one closer is going to catch most of it. Women walking on the inside had more to do with skirts getting splashed from the roadways.

    • @e-curb
      @e-curb 2 года назад +3

      "(presumable men) made use of vats placed on most streetcorners." It's my understanding that there were urinals out on the public streets and that the urine was collected for use as a cleaning solution: Uric acid. The uric acid was used to clean their laundry. Rinsed with clear water afterwards, of course!
      It is also suggested that the Romans used uric acid to brush their teeth. Who's going to be the first person to test the effectiveness of this and get back to us?

  • @sergioleone4215
    @sergioleone4215 2 года назад +22

    Reminds me of the latrines at Fort Gordon, Georgia back in the 70's. We had a row of about 10 toilets against a wall with no dividers or any privacy whatsoever. People would walk by in front as you were taking a dump on their way to the showers. The first time I saw that I vowed to hold it for the duration of my AIT training but that didn't quite work out. Lol.

    • @jimb3093
      @jimb3093 2 года назад +8

      Fort Bragg early 90's the same thing. I went through a pre-ranger course out there and toilets where side by side. I had to use it and sat down next to an Army chaplain lol! Both of us taking a crap chatting. haha!

    • @Menaceblue3
      @Menaceblue3 2 года назад +2

      @@jimb3093
      "Father, any prayers to get the strength to pass the Poo?"
      "10 hail Mary's, 5 apostle creeds, and bite the bullet son!"!

    • @thetayz72
      @thetayz72 Год назад +3

      Treating soldiers like animals for no actual reason. Enormous budget, I think they could afford a door and 2 walls to shit unobserved.

  • @CaptCroctopus
    @CaptCroctopus 2 года назад +2

    Steve at Woosh Drain in NY is a fkkn legend for sponsoring this.

  • @DowntownPaco
    @DowntownPaco 2 года назад +13

    As always Dr. Ryan you’re witty humor is always appreciated, even when you talk about Roman latrines. Thank you again for another fabulous video.

  • @Seabass-fg1zs
    @Seabass-fg1zs 2 года назад +14

    Awesome ad, love to see the support for a true local & small business. Love the videos too, keep up the amazing work!

  • @georgehopkins2069
    @georgehopkins2069 Год назад +2

    Very informative and well presented - thank you! Shout out to WHOOSH PLUMBING! If I lived in their service area, I would certainly use their services based solely on their sponsorship of this video!

  • @Jk47rocky23
    @Jk47rocky23 2 года назад +7

    Nice ad for that guy from queens . You did him justice 👍

  • @randyjax09
    @randyjax09 2 года назад +21

    I remember seeing an example of this in the Spartacus series and was completely grossed out by the communal wiping sponge. 😖

  • @Tbail
    @Tbail 2 года назад +4

    Loved the video. Loved the local ad. Bought the book. What can I say? Job well done

  • @mongrelrat
    @mongrelrat 2 года назад +14

    The "Cloaca Maxima" in Rome (lit. Greatest Sewer), built during early Roman Republic 2500 year ago, is still used nowadays.

  • @emilysimons6759
    @emilysimons6759 2 года назад +48

    Speaking as someone who experiences bathroom anxiety, this video is fascinating. Ancient Romans were much braver than I would be in that situation!

    • @bahtois4741
      @bahtois4741 2 года назад +3

      What is bathroom anxiety?

    • @greenfroggood2392
      @greenfroggood2392 2 года назад +22

      @@bahtois4741 a luxury of the modern world

    • @bahtois4741
      @bahtois4741 2 года назад

      @@greenfroggood2392 ahahha. Agreed. I'll subscribe to you because you made my day.

    • @21stcenturyozman20
      @21stcenturyozman20 2 года назад +2

      *Emily Simons* - Why would you have 'bathroom anxiety'? Are you afraid of bathing?

    • @Jumpnjacksdaddy
      @Jumpnjacksdaddy 2 года назад +1

      Just fart really loud and the anxiety disappears.

  • @BrassStacks
    @BrassStacks 9 месяцев назад +2

    This was good, but I still have a question.
    During large events, how did they deal with the huge numbers of people going to the bathroom? Our modem systems have issues with large crowds, albeit for different reasons, but still... How did they deal with large crowds?

  • @scottabc72
    @scottabc72 2 года назад +131

    Im curious what evidence there is that ancient Romans actually threw their waste out the window. Ive read that in medieval Europe, where throwing waste out the window is often shown as a trope in modern entertainment, was actually relatively rare. There was various kinds of infrastructure like 'nightsoil collectors' that would carry it away, often to farm fields where it could be useful and in any case neighbors would object to having shit poured on their heads. It seems that Roman cities that were generally better organized and regulated than medieval European cities would do even better with disposing of waste in a smart way.

    • @toldinstone
      @toldinstone  2 года назад +59

      Most of our evidence comes from Roman poets mentioning - albeit in a satirical mode - the consequences of dropping a chamber pot from a window, which implies that it was customary to tip the pot out a window.

    • @scottabc72
      @scottabc72 2 года назад +5

      @@toldinstone Interesting, thanks for the reply

    • @xBINARYGODx
      @xBINARYGODx 2 года назад +35

      @@toldinstone it doesn't imply anything of the such. The assumptions people make are truly astounding. You can get that many people living close to each other if the streets are full of crap, and all of the other unsavory outcomes people imagine with little actual evidence to back it up.

    • @geoben1810
      @geoben1810 2 года назад +5

      @@xBINARYGODx
      Yes, I would think they'd keep by the window because of the smell

    • @geoben1810
      @geoben1810 2 года назад +1

      @@toldinstone
      I would think that they kept them in the window because of the smell

  • @RunnyBabbits
    @RunnyBabbits 2 года назад +14

    Wow...I live two blocks away from Woosh Pipe and Drain! I would definitely check it out if I have plumbing issues. Keep up the good work with these educational videos!

  • @francine8806
    @francine8806 Год назад +1

    In front of the toilets was a channel with running water in which they cleaned their sponges. The channel is noticeable in some of the photos you showed of the ruins of ancient latrines.

  • @Raaaahhhhbbbie
    @Raaaahhhhbbbie 2 года назад +5

    I love that you’ve got a sponsor who isn’t the usual, same old RUclips sponsor. If I ever need plumbing done in Queens, I’ll call Woosh

    • @davidortega357
      @davidortega357 2 года назад

      Now in 2019 Californians homeless crap in the streets of San Francisco in downtown walking around town is a no no to smelly crap on sidewalks dirty needles rats so filthy everywhere in SF smells like caca

  • @RikuLeppanen
    @RikuLeppanen 2 года назад +95

    When I did my Finnish military training in the 80s, our toilet set-up was similar to the one of Romans. We had four seats on either side without any partitions. It is interesting how quickly it became the most natural thing to do one's business and chat with army mates about the daily events.

    • @boxoffisa
      @boxoffisa 2 года назад +25

      Did it feel awkward at first to poop while someone looking in your face?

    • @smokingjoe9864
      @smokingjoe9864 2 года назад +7

      Hey bud, hand me some of that toilet paper? That sucks. 10 guys in there. Nothing worse than a dozen heads all abreast.

    •  2 года назад +17

      Sorry, but for the 80s that sounds utterly disgusting. :(

    • @akolyt
      @akolyt 2 года назад +4

      80s???? 😬

    • @scorfanazzo4458
      @scorfanazzo4458 2 года назад +12

      You finns are quite the strange bunch but at the same a very fascinating people!

  • @dennisspqr
    @dennisspqr 2 года назад

    I heard once on a tour of a public Roman toilet that those sponges on a stick to clean up.....were handed around. All used the same sponges and only rinsed them afterwards. This piece of information has really.....impressed me

  • @bummelmann
    @bummelmann 2 года назад +5

    best sponsor ever

  • @gerardjacquemier5137
    @gerardjacquemier5137 2 года назад +49

    Très informé comme d'habitude. Félicitations!

  • @Pyratebob1
    @Pyratebob1 2 года назад +15

    When I was in the Navy in the 80's and 90's, one of our port visits was on the Island of Sardinia, a popular hiking place outside of town, had a communal (unisex) building that was the local 'bathroom' . It entirely consisted of 12 holes on the ground with foot treads on either side of the hole. nothing else. I discovered it was also bring your own TP(or rock lol)

    • @proantagonist5042
      @proantagonist5042 2 года назад

      At least they make an effort on being civilized and clean about going to the bathroom instead of just doing it randomly anywhere

  • @zin153
    @zin153 2 года назад +6

    Loved, and laughed out loud at the commentary.

  • @maureenmcglynn3777
    @maureenmcglynn3777 2 года назад +8

    My hometown in UK is the oldest Roman town in U.K. So many things uncovered and still being uncovered. Knew of this. Roman history is so interesting.

  • @kaiw1182
    @kaiw1182 Год назад +2

    There’s a large, communal latrine at one of the live fire ranges at Fort Irwin . Scariest thing was thinking about a black widow spider crawling onto you.

  • @streusel17
    @streusel17 2 года назад +8

    6:46 how did he manage to say this without laughing, the imagery is absolutely hysterical

    • @jojojo6147
      @jojojo6147 2 года назад +1

      That's the origin of the phrase "on the hot seat."

  • @desertweasel6965
    @desertweasel6965 2 года назад +6

    A huge octopus crawled out of one of the toilets as everyone stared in amazement. Some laughed, others were frightened. This one event that happened in a Roman toilet has made it 2000 years into the future. We are still talking about that one morning an octopus crawled from that toilet.

  • @surfcitiz
    @surfcitiz 2 года назад +1

    Brilliant, both for advertising and informative value.

  • @stevearchtoe7039
    @stevearchtoe7039 2 года назад +37

    “He doesn’t know how to use the 3 seashells!”

    • @brettdziekonski1451
      @brettdziekonski1451 2 года назад +4

      I was just about to put the same comment!!......Great minds think alike!

  • @vladimirpia148
    @vladimirpia148 2 года назад +4

    Can you imagine the conversation going around in one of these places

  • @georgebeard2337
    @georgebeard2337 9 месяцев назад +1

    I came here to learn fascinating facts about roman latrines but that thing about going to the toilet being a whole hazard filled adventure really cracks me up. imagine a group of people relieving themselves when suddenly their toilets exploded! must have made a fine mess!

  • @redjarvis
    @redjarvis 2 года назад +5

    This channel is severely overlooked

  • @richardzimmermann9372
    @richardzimmermann9372 2 года назад +13

    Vienne (Saint-Romain-en-Gal) has one of the most stunning Roman latrines with columns and wall paintings preserved in the museum. If there’s a part 2, they could be featured.

  • @killan001
    @killan001 Год назад +1

    That is a great design to include the D slot in the front.

  • @michaelwayne7887
    @michaelwayne7887 2 года назад +9

    "...gouts of flame roaring through the seats" Lol!

  • @Mr.5N
    @Mr.5N 2 года назад +14

    I recently bought your book and I'm eagerly awaiting for its delivery. Best wishes for the new year, and love from Argentina.

  • @brianlee2646
    @brianlee2646 Год назад +2

    I wish I could visit these ancient times and experience their way of life.

  • @michaels7566
    @michaels7566 2 года назад +60

    When I was about 5 years old, we lived in rural Maine in an apartment. There was only one outhouse with maybe 6 holes. Men, women, boys and girls would sometimes relieve themselves at the same time. Thinking back on it now, it was pretty weird, but at the time, I didn't think that much about it.

    • @thomasschwarting5108
      @thomasschwarting5108 2 года назад +5

      I can remember when camping WAY back when I was a kid, there was out houses

    • @mchrysogelos7623
      @mchrysogelos7623 2 года назад +2

      It's amazing what you get used to... I have done that in modern times in China... many public squat toilets - quite the norm. (although they are separated for men and women usually!)

    • @Nepthu
      @Nepthu 2 года назад

      When I went to school in the 80s, our school had a large urinal like a bathtub. All the boys would gather around to piss in it and talk at the same time. I haven't seen a urinal like that in a long time.

    • @gloriouspurpose_
      @gloriouspurpose_ 2 года назад

      @@Nepthu sounds nightmarish

    • @RonJohn63
      @RonJohn63 Год назад +1

      @@gloriouspurpose_ nah. 40+ years ago, guys performed all sorts of communal sanitary and hygienic activities without a second thought. Only defecation was mostly private.
      And it was _pervasive for both genders_ (think of the girls's shower scene in Porky's ), because it happened all the way from junior high through college (which was in a different city in a different part of the state.
      And then _something_ (though I really don't know what or when) happened... children became even softer/weaker than we were.

  • @Stupoider
    @Stupoider 2 года назад +7

    Best sponsored content I've ever watched! Love the book, too!

  • @chefrob1020
    @chefrob1020 2 года назад +2

    Terribly interesting! Thank you! If you've ever been camping or lived in rural areas, this stuff doesn't shock you. But, most city people can't even compute this behavior...LOL.

  • @sternamc919sterna3
    @sternamc919sterna3 2 года назад +10

    Not long ago in a documentary on the Portuguese sailors' adventures in mid XV century, it was mentioned that there were no WC aboard the caravelles. The business was done overboard and the brush (o pincel) was used for hygiene. The brush was a dummy of rags on the end of a stick hanging overboard by some rope. The rags were submerged in sea water and possibly the movement of the caravelles or the action of decomposers "cleaned" it. Just crossed my mind that this strategy, similar to the romans', may have been used over millennia😉

    • @AS-qg1xu
      @AS-qg1xu 8 месяцев назад

      Interesting!

  • @sudhindrakopalle7071
    @sudhindrakopalle7071 2 года назад +4

    Thank you for a wonderful video. It is astonishing how RUclips can bring us information and knowledge that we would have certainly not known otherwise.

  • @laurnborne3830
    @laurnborne3830 2 года назад +1

    "Solon rubbed his belly to crap well" That's funny line

  • @DesertGuy702
    @DesertGuy702 2 года назад +29

    Crazy to think of just how spoiled we are today in comparison to so many who came before. Our poor live better than Emperors & Kings of the past in terms of material amenities.

  • @justine4353
    @justine4353 2 года назад +53

    I always like to imagine what humans centuries in the future will look back on and gag asking, “did people really do that?” Communal sponges made me wonder what atrocities we’re committing now that people someday will wonder how we could have lived that way.

    • @olenickel6013
      @olenickel6013 2 года назад +2

      The xylospongium being used to clean yourself is likely a modern myth. There's really no evidence for that and modern science considers it more likely it was a sort of toilet brush to clean the latrine after use.

    • @jefferytillis8309
      @jefferytillis8309 2 года назад +2

      And considering most did not bathe daily I would imagine it was not a pleasant life for the nose. It's amazing what we take for normal these days that were not always so.

    • @Herr_Flick_of_ze_Gestapo
      @Herr_Flick_of_ze_Gestapo 2 года назад +5

      communal sponges is a totall myth

    • @ASMRGRATITUDE
      @ASMRGRATITUDE 2 года назад +13

      As I've worked in restaurants my whole life I'd like to mention the Health Department's exist for a reason.
      Left unchecked, many humans still act in a disgusting manner.

    • @foreskinpolice
      @foreskinpolice Год назад

      Circumcision atrocity.

  • @2Sor2Fig
    @2Sor2Fig 8 месяцев назад +2

    Lmao, putting up frescos of the goddess Fortuna is the ancient equivalent of having a sign over the door to the ablutions that simply reads, "Good luck and have fun". Equal parts intrigue and trepidation.

  • @doingtime20
    @doingtime20 2 года назад +73

    This kills my fantasies of living in a medieval fantasy realm. Who cares about wizards and fantastic beings if you have to 'clean' yourself daily with filthy sponges and rocks?

    • @mtlmenace8590
      @mtlmenace8590 2 года назад +10

      shit was disgusting back in the days man they used to share to wipe and clean up 🤮

    • @mohamedamin4302
      @mohamedamin4302 2 года назад +3

      people used water not rocks.

    • @gl3936
      @gl3936 2 года назад +4

      @@mohamedamin4302 the video just mentioned that rocks were used as cleaning too🤦‍♀️

    • @shadowfax9177
      @shadowfax9177 2 года назад +4

      @@mohamedamin4302 the video says they not only used rocks, but seashells too in order to scrape the poo off.

    • @rtgbhreth
      @rtgbhreth 2 года назад +4

      Eh there would be a lot more forest area i think. Id rather go dig a hole and shit in the woods

  • @thecovidprisoner
    @thecovidprisoner 2 года назад +7

    Humorous presentation of a Roman basic function , great job. Interesting seeing sponsorship as well, thought it was a joke at first. 😀

  • @Hibernicus1968
    @Hibernicus1968 2 года назад +3

    Videos like this offer just one small glimpse of a single one of a vast array of reasons to be eternally grateful for having been born in the modern, developed world.

  • @dwu9369
    @dwu9369 2 года назад +7

    I remember seeing these public toilets for the first time in the Spartacus series. Me and my friend found what we called the wet "rag on a stick" hilarious.

  • @MongrolianD
    @MongrolianD 2 года назад +13

    I heard they’ve got similar facilities in London, minus the seating (‘Stratford phone box’)

  • @mrbeltr5833
    @mrbeltr5833 Год назад +2

    Perfect video to accompany my breakfast 🤤

  • @Nandeadstudios
    @Nandeadstudios 2 года назад +4

    I love the dry humour in this video.