Billions of these mysterious particles are blasted down from the sun and pass through our bodies undetected. More videos at www.sixtysymbols.com/ With Ed Copeland
I wish i could just follow Professor Copeland around every day and learn whatever it is he felt like talking about. He is the most pleasant and calming person ever!
When the sun sends its neutrinos it's not sending the best. It's sending particles with lots of problems, and they're passing those problems through us. They're bringing faster than light movement, they're bringing new insights in particle physics, they change flavors, and some, I assume are antineutrinos.
Massa Cinzenta well he worded wrong they arrive earlier than photons because even though they are slower they don't interact with other particles scattered around in space or in the atmosphere unlike photons, since the photons interact they arrival time is prolonged.
I love that moment when professor Ed just starts laughing about how the answers in his questions are in that room, but utterly impossible to see. "About a billion of them. Where are they?" I love it. Thanks Brady!
I'm not a college graduate in physics or mathematics...I still have a hard time with long division, but i can understand this clearly. Thank you guys for putting it in simpler terms. I hope one day the everyone can watch these videos and get a little bit of insight and break themselves from the reality they put themselves in. Cheers, Chris!
@yusukeshinyama thank you... it has always been important to us that the videos are very natural and informal.... we just want to show what scientists are really like and the stuff they think about!
I can't enough say how much I love these videos. Listening to these scientists talking casually about their work is much more fun and thought-provoking than watching a music-ridden, computer-graphics-rich, overacting "science" show. We should have this on a national TV.
I particularly enjoy the description of neutrinos' lack of interaction, stated similar to "could sail through a light-year's length of lead without ever touching an atom"
I love the reaction at the end of the video, reaching out to grab ancient neutrinos and saying "where are they?" There's a real joy and wonderment you can see at play in his expression.
I don't even study these types of subjects but i still seem to watch these and i find them really interested. If these guys were my teachers when i was choosing my subjects i would have chosen them to carry on to a higher level of study!
Speaking of the strong and weak forces I'd love to see a video about that (or two!). I think most people have some idea of how the two other forces (gravity and electromagnetism) work but the strong and the weak are a bit more obscure, no?
"... weak nuclear force, which is, well as its name suggests, a rather pathetic force" Poor weak nuclear force! It doesn't deserve such hateful treatment.
Does "not having mass" mean it cannot transmute? When I heard that I thought that being massless it travels at speed of light, therefore its own time is still and that's why it cannot change. But then: how do photos transmute into pairs of matter-antimatter as described by Feynmann-diagrams? My question then is unanswered: why not having mass means they cannot transmute?
If I am not mistaken that photon into electron/positron thing requires a nearby charge that the photon zooms by. So maybe that's the answer, the photon "hits" that charge. not sure though it's a great question
I have been struggling through the neutrino interactions and coming up short. Does the physical cross section of a nucleus have a direct correlation to its barns? (Do barns even count for anything in neutrino interactions?) Is the probability of a neutrino smacking into a nucleus a simple arithmetic problem of the cross section? It seems like it must be FAR less probable than that. My uni classes gave values for barns for thermal and intermediate neutrons, and they did not seem to have any correlation to the size of the nucleus, if a few decades of cobwebs haven't messed with my memory. So if cross section is not the important part that non-quantum thinking makes it seem to be, neutrinos pass through nuclei without noticing them... ? My apologies if this was already covered. I read through a lot of the comments and didn't find it. Thanks for any help to figure this out.
The mean free path of neutrinos in lead is more like 9 light years if I recall my first year undergrad physics correctly. That was almost thirty years ago so I'd have to work it out again to be sure. It's a basic calculation if you know the interaction cross section , which is of the order of (few/few hundred) zeptobarns for beta energy neutrinos, although it's not as well characterised a number as you might expect.
So if neutrinos are 2 Kelvin, and they are virtually everywhere, does that contribute to how we cannot make substances such as liquid helium reach absolute zero? Would neutrinos effect the temperature of objects they pass through?
+Seth Hastings If I recall, the third law of thermodynamics claims that it's completely impossible to ever reach 0 kelvin. I'm guessing that's due to entropy.
+Seth Hastings We have been able to reach within a billionth of zero degrees Kelvin, which is pretty close. So neutrinos aren't the only reason why that would be impossible. If you were able to construct hypothetically a container that isolates its content from the rest of universe entirely i.e no radiations, no neutrinos, you would still not be able to reach absolute zero. That's because it's just theoretically impossible. And because of multiple reason. I will list one - In Quantum Mechanics, there's a fundamental principle known as Heisenberg Uncertainity principe which places an upper bound on certainity of momentum and position of particle i.e. you cannot precisely determine both the momentum and the position of the particle. This means that increasing your accuracy in measurement of either momentum or position would come at the expense of accuracy of the other. Now consider this, at absolute zero you would have no motion which would mean that you'd know both the position and momentum of the particle precisely. This is in direct violation of Heisenberg's uncertainity principle !
In "What do you care what people think" Feynman tells about how his father asked him if the electron that's emitted by an atom when it changes state was in the atom ahead of time. It's nothing like that. A neutron isn't a container with two physical down quarks and an up quark and a neutrino that falls out when you replace one of the down quarks with an up quark. The quarks are not physical objects. They're properties of the proton, and the neutrino only begins to exist when it's being released.
So, what is the size of the void between each neutrino?, since so many pass through a small space within a small amount of time. Do neutrinos interact with the higgs field ?
actually , the standard model says that all particles are massless, but then the Higgs mechanism is how most particles gain their rest mass, except for photons and gluons it is confirmed that neutrinos do have mass, since they travel slower than c.
few questions. the massless particles cant change because they experiance no passage of time right? with the neutrino having almost no interactions what we do detect is it hitting a proton directly? i would also assume its very small so would that make it more like when it hits a quark directly? final question with quantum field theroy in mind is it hitting anything really the right way to look at it. dosent it come down to if there is a reaction with the weak force then we can detect it. if not the "wave packet" of the neutrino may indeed go right through, regaurdless of a direct "hit"?
If the increase in neutrinos occurred at the same time as the light hit earth, does that not imply that the neutrinos are travelling at the same speed as the photons, and therefore cannot have mass? Even if they moved at 99% of the speed of light, over such vast distances they would have reached earth at different times
@tucense They were actually detected 3 hours before the light, though that is supposed to be because the Neutrinos spiked when the core collapsed and the light spiked when the outer layer of the star exploded off it.
He said that he needed to convert two protons into two neutrons to complete the He-4 nucleus, he said that it would be done by the proton emitting a positron and a neutrino.
@StaupEimer when An proton becomes A neutron it emits A positron so that makes me think that something in the neutron was changed in order for it to have A charge afterwards .
@kristijanadrian I dunno. I just know that it is said that there are "four known fundamental interactions, all of which are non-contact forces, [...] electromagnetism, strong interaction, weak interaction (also known as 'strong' and 'weak nuclear force') and gravitation." (Wikipedia). So what I'd like to hear about is the strong and weak forces mentioned there. I don't really know much about theoretical physics :|
@estelja It depends on the shape of the universe. Many feel that it's a torus meaning that your neutrino would simply loop around the giant donut universe.
Seth Hastings, I don't think neutrinos would be responsible for the difficulty cooling helium below 2K. Neutrinos only interact with particles that they collide with. So just passing through a substance doesn't cause energy to move from either the neutrino or the substance.
@petsoukos I'm just guessing the neutrinos are not sucked in because they don't feel the gravity pull, but they do collide because the black hole is so dense.
As long as the neutrinos have mass, they have forces of attraction which interact with other masses. They do get affected, but the effects are very small, almost negligible. So there is no reason why Black holes wouldn't affect them (even an atom in our body does). This is the relationship between Gravity and Mass and Distance. A poem by Francis Thompson: "All things by immortal power near or far to each other hiddenly linked are. That thou cans't not stir a flower without troubling a star."
i had no idea that there was even electrons and positrons and neutrinos in protons and neutrons for them to be decay particles they had to be in the p/N all along . COOL.
That's a good question. Considering the distance between Earth and a supernova, light vs. neutrinos would travel a significant enough distance to reveal the difference between their speeds. If neutrinos indeed travel slightly faster than light, then we should have observed the spike in neutrinos about an house or so prior to seeing the supernova. I suspect the scientists are going back to these observations if the spike arrived hours before visual observation of the supernova.
A neutrino appears to be an idea that may or may not represent reality. Neutrino detection not only requires amazing technology capable of detecting the most faint perturbation, it also requires minds unwilling to consider other possibilities in order to adhere to what is best described as a secular religious faith.
Yeah, it's not that's the shorter equation for rest mass, the larger equation has velocity of the particle in it. But this is used to understand the effect of a body with only mass and without its velocity.
@tucense neutrinos travel very close to the speed of light so the difference of when we see the blast and when the neutrinos arrive is negligible, I would suppose
That was 1 thing I always wonder about, ty for the video and explianations. 1 thing comes to mind, if neutrinos can change 1 atom to another, how much, in ratio, does neutrinos related to life as we know it?
@skinnyjohnsen I think it would be hard to know what neutrinos came from the supernova and what came from earth, since they are so hard to detect. I remember watchin a documentary about the first experiment, where they had that large pool of chlorine(mentioned in this video), according to calculations they should have detected about 10 neutrinos per week, and they only detected 3 neutrinos on average... thats because they only could detect one type back then, they didn't know of the other two.
The short version of e=mc2 is that energy and matter are 2 sides of the same coin. Just like there is no electricity without magnetism (elctromagnetism), just like there is no space without time (spacetime), there is no energy without mass (I guess it really should be called energymass). We should still remember that the theory of relativity predicts it's own downfall when spacetime is so strong it's bent into a singularity, so whatever theories we have are, by definition, limited and tentative
Neutrino oscillation was not confirmed until 1998 by Super K, though this did explain why Homestead(The source of the neutrino problem) keep getting rough 1/3 of their neutrinos they expected.
@metabog quaternion yes ! if your referring to orientation of angles ,euler rotations etc i do 3d cgi as hobbie ,reason i use the the word is do do with a word survey that i found out about so i say it on every reply to sixtysymbols channel hehe
Наука
I wish i could just follow Professor Copeland around every day and learn whatever it is he felt like talking about. He is the most pleasant and calming person ever!
Me too!
Until he starts writing mathematics. 😁
he is brilliant, its incredible
A Neutrino walks into a bar.
The bartender says "Can I help you?"
The Neutrino says, "Nope, just passing through."
This is one of those times when I'm not sure whether to give it a thumbs-up or a thumbs-down...
Hahah
I hate neutrinos. Sick of having them go through me. I'm off to build my 4 LY lead sphere.
When the sun sends its neutrinos it's not sending the best. It's sending particles with lots of problems, and they're passing those problems through us. They're bringing faster than light movement, they're bringing new insights in particle physics, they change flavors, and some, I assume are antineutrinos.
Isn't faster than light speed impossible according to modern theories?
It isn't, dude. It has mass, then it is slower than light speed.
So I say: WE NEED TO BUILD A LEAD WALL.
Massa Cinzenta well he worded wrong they arrive earlier than photons because even though they are slower they don't interact with other particles scattered around in space or in the atmosphere unlike photons, since the photons interact they arrival time is prolonged.
@1:30, this dude is the competition that Eminem deserves
Uh summa lama duma lama you assuming i'm a neutron.
what i gotta do to get it through to you i'm . . . a neutrino.
Love Ed Copeland...He radiates a real love of physics (so do all of his colleagues) but him more so.
A gentle soul
I was reading the comments only to find this comment !!!
11 year old videos and they are still somehow very satisfying to watch and learn
I love that moment when professor Ed just starts laughing about how the answers in his questions are in that room, but utterly impossible to see. "About a billion of them. Where are they?" I love it. Thanks Brady!
I'm not a college graduate in physics or mathematics...I still have a hard time with long division, but i can understand this clearly. Thank you guys for putting it in simpler terms. I hope one day the everyone can watch these videos and get a little bit of insight and break themselves from the reality they put themselves in.
Cheers, Chris!
@yusukeshinyama thank you... it has always been important to us that the videos are very natural and informal....
we just want to show what scientists are really like and the stuff they think about!
these professors are charismatic and are passionate towards their craft, it is really inspiring
7:26 Hitting head on indeed.
I can't enough say how much I love these videos. Listening to these scientists talking casually about their work is much more fun and thought-provoking than watching a music-ridden, computer-graphics-rich, overacting "science" show. We should have this on a national TV.
My faith in the internet is restored by these posts..fascinating stuff. Thanks for posting.
7:26 oops. trying to hit the hand, not the face.
That was extremely cute
@@naughtyadventuresofmcbrouh5410 suddenly gei
Woohoo! I'm from Sudbury, Ontario and I've been down to the SNO.
k
I particularly enjoy the description of neutrinos' lack of interaction, stated similar to "could sail through a light-year's length of lead without ever touching an atom"
9:50 - I love his passion! He's one of my favourites that Brady interviews!
The excitement in telling these stories is great :)
I love the reaction at the end of the video, reaching out to grab ancient neutrinos and saying "where are they?" There's a real joy and wonderment you can see at play in his expression.
5:15 nice italian there
These hands too, yeah
8:30 "well ... I imagine that, I wasn't there..."
Hilarious! XD
Thank you for explaining things so clearly it makes me think I can understand them.
I was there - where were you all? Didn't you get the invitation?
8:26 "I wasn't there."
Where u from then?
"technically", we were _all_ there
but there was no "I" yet (and no 'was' either), except like that, between quotes
Maybe he's from the previous one
@@SirDictator There still is no "i". The only difference now is that the universe has become aware of its self.
Ed's smile is the best
"Tea with sugar?"
"Thank you, I'll have neutrinos, please."
Hahah
This was an excellent video, I really enjoyed how easily the professors explain these difficult concepts!
Would radioactive atoms decay without neutrinos passing?
What happens with neutrinos in neutron-stars?
"Sometimes when you feel itchy you never know...it could be the neutrinos" I've always wondered where those phantoms itches came from.
Lol'ed at that 🤣
I like their historic wonder and awe which all of the 'sixty symbols' share. Very informative for the non physicists among us.
Wonderful. Great discussion and Q&A. So natural. Pleasure to listen to
You squished so much information into this video about a particle we know very little of. My head hurts! :)
Love you guys! Keep up the great work!!!
I don't even study these types of subjects but i still seem to watch these and i find them really interested. If these guys were my teachers when i was choosing my subjects i would have chosen them to carry on to a higher level of study!
This was made before the discovery of neutrinos...
Speaking of the strong and weak forces I'd love to see a video about that (or two!). I think most people have some idea of how the two other forces (gravity and electromagnetism) work but the strong and the weak are a bit more obscure, no?
looks like strong force is forced , by force while weak force is not forced .
All 4 fundamental interactions are understood.
"... weak nuclear force, which is, well as its name suggests, a rather pathetic force"
Poor weak nuclear force! It doesn't deserve such hateful treatment.
Especially cause Gravity is much weaker.
Fascinating stuff. I like how this was explained.
"Well I imagine that, I wasn't there." Humble & Brilliant
I just love the SixtySymbols videos... very educational! =) (and I'm just in awe how no one started a religious discussion yet! Better that way)
I love these videos.
Good coverage of the subject!
@yusukeshinyama Agreed. These guys have taught me more about physics than any television show I've ever seen.
Does "not having mass" mean it cannot transmute? When I heard that I thought that being massless it travels at speed of light, therefore its own time is still and that's why it cannot change. But then: how do photos transmute into pairs of matter-antimatter as described by Feynmann-diagrams?
My question then is unanswered: why not having mass means they cannot transmute?
If I am not mistaken that photon into electron/positron thing requires a nearby charge that the photon zooms by. So maybe that's the answer, the photon "hits" that charge.
not sure though it's a great question
Thank you for your videos!
I just realized that this is 6 years old.
This was a very high quality video for something from 2010
I just realised it's 7 years old
I just realized it's 8 years old
@@davidgjam7600 feel old yet?
And now it's nine, people we are getting old
I have been struggling through the neutrino interactions and coming up short. Does the physical cross section of a nucleus have a direct correlation to its barns? (Do barns even count for anything in neutrino interactions?) Is the probability of a neutrino smacking into a nucleus a simple arithmetic problem of the cross section? It seems like it must be FAR less probable than that. My uni classes gave values for barns for thermal and intermediate neutrons, and they did not seem to have any correlation to the size of the nucleus, if a few decades of cobwebs haven't messed with my memory. So if cross section is not the important part that non-quantum thinking makes it seem to be, neutrinos pass through nuclei without noticing them... ? My apologies if this was already covered. I read through a lot of the comments and didn't find it. Thanks for any help to figure this out.
"the chances of one actually hitting... HEAD ON are actually really tiny". I love how he's unintentionally demonstrating the "hitting head on" XD
Superb per usual.....thanks !
I have to admit that I did chuckle quite loudly when he poked his cheek at 7:24. OK, maybe a little more than a chuckle!
The mean free path of neutrinos in lead is more like 9 light years if I recall my first year undergrad physics correctly. That was almost thirty years ago so I'd have to work it out again to be sure. It's a basic calculation if you know the interaction cross section , which is of the order of (few/few hundred) zeptobarns for beta energy neutrinos, although it's not as well characterised a number as you might expect.
I’m doing this for homework and I thought that this would just be another ancient boring video but it was actually very interesting thanks
pauli was a smart guy
You could, quite possibly, compile these videos into tv-ready chunks for distribution to various networks.
So if neutrinos are 2 Kelvin, and they are virtually everywhere, does that contribute to how we cannot make substances such as liquid helium reach absolute zero? Would neutrinos effect the temperature of objects they pass through?
Sixty Symbols
Veritasium
lol just saw this John Drummond
+Seth Hastings If I recall, the third law of thermodynamics claims that it's completely impossible to ever reach 0 kelvin. I'm guessing that's due to entropy.
+Seth Hastings We have been able to reach within a billionth of zero degrees Kelvin, which is pretty close. So neutrinos aren't the only reason why that would be impossible. If you were able to construct hypothetically a container that isolates its content from the rest of universe entirely i.e no radiations, no neutrinos, you would still not be able to reach absolute zero. That's because it's just theoretically impossible. And because of multiple reason. I will list one - In Quantum Mechanics, there's a fundamental principle known as Heisenberg Uncertainity principe which places an upper bound on certainity of momentum and position of particle i.e. you cannot precisely determine both the momentum and the position of the particle. This means that increasing your accuracy in measurement of either momentum or position would come at the expense of accuracy of the other. Now consider this, at absolute zero you would have no motion which would mean that you'd know both the position and momentum of the particle precisely. This is in direct violation of Heisenberg's uncertainity principle !
5:15 best moment of the video.
In "What do you care what people think" Feynman tells about how his father asked him if the electron that's emitted by an atom when it changes state was in the atom ahead of time.
It's nothing like that. A neutron isn't a container with two physical down quarks and an up quark and a neutrino that falls out when you replace one of the down quarks with an up quark. The quarks are not physical objects. They're properties of the proton, and the neutrino only begins to exist when it's being released.
Nice one.
So, what is the size of the void between each neutrino?, since so many pass through a small space within a small amount of time.
Do neutrinos interact with the higgs field ?
Yes. Hence the mass.
good point, thanks.
actually , the standard model says that all particles are massless, but then the Higgs mechanism is how most particles gain their rest mass, except for photons and gluons
it is confirmed that neutrinos do have mass, since they travel slower than c.
few questions. the massless particles cant change because they experiance no passage of time right? with the neutrino having almost no interactions what we do detect is it hitting a proton directly? i would also assume its very small so would that make it more like when it hits a quark directly? final question with quantum field theroy in mind is it hitting anything really the right way to look at it. dosent it come down to if there is a reaction with the weak force then we can detect it. if not the "wave packet" of the neutrino may indeed go right through, regaurdless of a direct "hit"?
very interesting video thanks
I'm from Sturgeon Falls. You guys in Sudbury and North Bay are lucky because you get all of the cool stuff lol
the passion about the universe is about... f***** inspiring!!!! I want to get a degree in physics!!! keep it on...
Do a video on neutrons. :) Especially neutron beam.
If the increase in neutrinos occurred at the same time as the light hit earth, does that not imply that the neutrinos are travelling at the same speed as the photons, and therefore cannot have mass? Even if they moved at 99% of the speed of light, over such vast distances they would have reached earth at different times
Legend has it, Neil can catch neutrinos with his bare hands.
@tucense They were actually detected 3 hours before the light, though that is supposed to be because the Neutrinos spiked when the core collapsed and the light spiked when the outer layer of the star exploded off it.
He said that he needed to convert two protons into two neutrons to complete the He-4 nucleus, he said that it would be done by the proton emitting a positron and a neutrino.
@StaupEimer when An proton becomes A neutron it emits A positron so that makes me think that something in the neutron was changed in order for it to have A charge afterwards .
i just love these so much. what mysterious little particles. If they have a mass, then what speed do they get up to?
Can you create a video about phonons? I notice they have being mentioned in a couple of videos.
@kristijanadrian I dunno. I just know that it is said that there are "four known fundamental interactions, all of which are non-contact forces, [...] electromagnetism, strong interaction, weak interaction (also known as 'strong' and 'weak nuclear force') and gravitation." (Wikipedia). So what I'd like to hear about is the strong and weak forces mentioned there. I don't really know much about theoretical physics :|
@MrOldprof no offense, is just, so cool to see a protagonist answering comments.
@estelja It depends on the shape of the universe. Many feel that it's a torus meaning that your neutrino would simply loop around the giant donut universe.
7:27 Did he hit himself lol
Anyways, great video as always, I'd love to see one on positrons!
8:24
“Right at the start. Before t even started” ?
I’m confused. And with reason. Please explain this stylized sentence start, please
Due to momentum conservation, whatever signal the neutrino produces is going to be roughly in the same direction as the original neutrino.
Seth Hastings,
I don't think neutrinos would be responsible for the difficulty cooling helium below 2K.
Neutrinos only interact with particles that they collide with. So just passing through a substance doesn't cause energy to move from either the neutrino or the substance.
@petsoukos I'm just guessing the neutrinos are not sucked in because they don't feel the gravity pull, but they do collide because the black hole is so dense.
As long as the neutrinos have mass, they have forces of attraction which interact with other masses. They do get affected, but the effects are very small, almost negligible. So there is no reason why Black holes wouldn't affect them (even an atom in our body does). This is the relationship between Gravity and Mass and Distance. A poem by Francis Thompson: "All things by immortal power near or far to each other hiddenly linked are. That thou cans't not stir a flower without troubling a star."
Can you make a video about Cherenkov radiation?
That's one hell of a good question!
@djfxtrader900 Not quite, there were also trace ammounts of heavier elements, mostly lithium.
i had no idea that there was even electrons and positrons and neutrinos in protons and neutrons for them to be decay particles they had to be in the p/N all along . COOL.
This is the best sixty symbols ever!
That's a good question. Considering the distance between Earth and a supernova, light vs. neutrinos would travel a significant enough distance to reveal the difference between their speeds. If neutrinos indeed travel slightly faster than light, then we should have observed the spike in neutrinos about an house or so prior to seeing the supernova. I suspect the scientists are going back to these observations if the spike arrived hours before visual observation of the supernova.
I can't get my head around Neutrinos for some reason. The fact they go shooting through things without upsetting order is beyond me.
A neutrino appears to be an idea that may or may not represent reality. Neutrino detection not only requires amazing technology capable of detecting the most faint perturbation, it also requires minds unwilling to consider other possibilities in order to adhere to what is best described as a secular religious faith.
I love Dara O'Briain...
Yeah, it's not that's the shorter equation for rest mass, the larger equation has velocity of the particle in it. But this is used to understand the effect of a body with only mass and without its velocity.
@tucense neutrinos travel very close to the speed of light so the difference of when we see the blast and when the neutrinos arrive is negligible, I would suppose
That was 1 thing I always wonder about, ty for the video and explianations. 1 thing comes to mind, if neutrinos can change 1 atom to another, how much, in ratio, does neutrinos related to life as we know it?
The problem with flavors of neutrinos was the biggest problem identified at the Super-Kamiokande experiment in Japan.
Did the neutrino detectors spike during the recent gravitational waves events?
@skinnyjohnsen I think it would be hard to know what neutrinos came from the supernova and what came from earth, since they are so hard to detect. I remember watchin a documentary about the first experiment, where they had that large pool of chlorine(mentioned in this video), according to calculations they should have detected about 10 neutrinos per week, and they only detected 3 neutrinos on average... thats because they only could detect one type back then, they didn't know of the other two.
@StaupEimer positron emission is beta + decay
loved it
Construction of Hyper-KamiokaNDE is to start in April of this year. It will be ten times larger than Super-K.
The short version of e=mc2 is that energy and matter are 2 sides of the same coin. Just like there is no electricity without magnetism (elctromagnetism), just like there is no space without time (spacetime), there is no energy without mass (I guess it really should be called energymass). We should still remember that the theory of relativity predicts it's own downfall when spacetime is so strong it's bent into a singularity, so whatever theories we have are, by definition, limited and tentative
Neutrino oscillation was not confirmed until 1998 by Super K, though this did explain why Homestead(The source of the neutrino problem) keep getting rough 1/3 of their neutrinos they expected.
@metabog quaternion yes ! if your referring to orientation of angles ,euler rotations etc i do 3d cgi as hobbie ,reason i use the the word is do do with a word survey that i found out about so i say it on every reply to sixtysymbols channel hehe