The Negro Farmer (1938)
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- Опубликовано: 7 фев 2025
- Negro melodies by the Tuskegee Institute Choir. From the US National Archives.
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These hard working folks paved the way for us.
Much respect due!!.
?
my granddad on my mother side plowed his land with a donkey and a plow, man they worked hard, my people on my dad side still farm and have over 100 acre of family land tractors, cow, combines I'm so proud of them.
You have a reason to be proud 🤗🤗😀😀👍
I hope you help them and not sell it for little of nothing like my family did and this was recent I’m shame to say what little they got when it was split
My mom still maintains over 100 acres in Texas. Definitely won't ever sell it.
This motivates me so much knowing what my ancestors went through so I could farm today without the obstacles they had to face
This is how I was raised! My great aunt was a farmer like this from North Carolina and even once moving to New Jersey she raised me in this same way! And I feel it’s the best and if only we could restore the years of old! That was good healthy living! We pumped water from the well grew and canned all fruits and vegetables we had a wood burning stove that heated the whole house! Laundry by hand and hung on the line to dry my childhood was beautiful because of it 🙏🏽💕😊
+WHO TOLD YOU THAT!? -previously 3:33 Midnight Cry
' And I feel it’s the best and if only we could restore the years of old! That was good healthy living! We pumped water from the well grew and canned all fruits and vegetables we had a wood burning stove that heated the whole house! Laundry by hand and hung on the line to dry my childhood was beautiful because of it '...and don't forget segregation, with the odd lynching thrown in for a little light entertainment.
Shamrock Shore what a serpent😡
+WHO TOLD YOU THAT!?
Serpent? No. Realist? Yes.
You can look at the past through all the rose tinted glasses you want, but I'll bet if given the choice, those featured in this video, would swop their lot with your's in a flash. They hadn't the luxury of many things we take for granted today. One of those things being able to sit in the same movie theatre or visit the same public facilities as their white neighbours. This video paints a nice wholesome view of their prospects, but neglects to depict the very real hardships they encountered, and were imposed upon them by the laws of the day. For the most part, many of them were little more than sharecroppers.
WHO TOLD YOU THAT!? yes
WHO TOLD YOU THAT!? A serpent he is!! No matter what we do they surround is and tell us it's worthless yet squeeze us of our juices. They give us crumbs under the auspices of generosity when it's far less than we have earned. You know this and are a threat to many.
SPECIAL NOTE: "Aunt Sally Smith", seen at 1:34 TO 2:13, has recently been identified as Redoshi, the last survivor of the last slave ship "Clotilda". She still spoke fluent Bantu at age 90 and was filmed in Dallas County, Alabama (Selma) in 1936. She survived about two years longer than another well known survivor of the same ship, Cudjo Lewis or Kazoola, best known from Zora Neale Hurston's recently published book, "Baracoon" (2018). Ms Hurston had interviewed both of them in 1927-28. This information comes from news accounts of the work of Newcastle University's Hannah Durkin.
Who identified Aunt Sally Smith as Redoshi? They control the narrative.
@@hadessahf3549 Stfu Redoshi was her born west african name, there's no "NaRrAtIVE coNTrOl" you tin-foiled hat freak.
You better come through with the information ❤️💚🖤 thank you
This is heartbreaking. My people are resilient.
Yep,they have always survived; even after many moved North during The Great Migration North ;still resilient
I see a few things here:
1.Aunt Sally shows we are not as far from "Kunta Kinte" as we might think.
2. If we had not run away from the land to the cities so quickly, maybe we would dominate the grocery market now.
3. This proves the value of HBCUs
4. This proves how ADOS people of different backgrounds can work in a system to uplift us all as a group.
5.Economics start at home
6.Economics start with family.
7.Great things can be accomplished in a community.
8.Even in an oppressive system we can thrive.
9.Helping and/ or teaching those less fortunate than you with humility can bring amazing things.
10. It's not a bad thing that we are great singers as long as that is not all we are.
11. That young lady made a FABULOUS cape!
@Ruth Aldora Jesus SavesHealsAndRenews sure
I grew up in DC, both of my parents were from South Carolina, every summer that is where I spent my summers, both sides of my family were farmer back then if you didnt grow your own food you didn't eat, chicken hogs,pot bellied stove. hardlfe to live. but they made it.
mrstanbmw st
mrstanbmw.
If the land we work is not our own, farming is not progress.
1ginachell. That's right!
Everyone should know the basics of growing food, even if it's only in a back yard, on a balcony, or in containers. Without this knowledge, you are horribly dependent on those you should not trust. Every family should know enough to keep themselves fed and nourished.
@@deborahevans8757 the
Great seeing the video of Redoshi "Sally Smith", the last survivor of the Clotilda who died after Cudjoe "Kazoola" Lewis of Africatown. Thanks for sharing!
as bad as it was back then we own more land in this country than we do today,i don't know if every thing we call progress in progress.
That was not their land that was the white people's land, they were sharecroppers . What the Docu is about is for those people to stay there. Many black people were leaving going up north because the living condition was so bad where they were, people were starving. So they came up with a program The Stay At Home program to keep black people there to sharecrop and they started the program to help the improve their life. So they wont all leave and go up north. and I think the was during the depression.
They no this....they gave us easy access to predatory loans like student loans keep us in high debt, f up credit scores, stagnant saving ability so we can't buy homes, grocery stores or land.
What is so informative, about these u-tube video and chat online text
Have y'all ever thought about it . What are they getting out of it
They are getting you, your thoughts who you are. A profile of you. Mentally. Do not need to take survey much any more. Be mindful how you express yourself on line. wonderring why you can't get an interview, for a job, No matter where you go. These statement are not factual, but they are definitely something to think about.
We were shareCroppers
We eventually own more land than we do today
But we worked someone else land, and lived on it. At the end of year, they was suppose to pay us. We usually. End up owing them money. Another form of Slavery
Some time the black woman of the house would be able to talk the white owner of plantation to give them some of their money
She had a different position with the plantation owners, Than the black man
She raised the children, in the home. She was called the mule of the earth. they sucked her breast as babies , She was MoMA, to them, nursed them up, to care, for themselves. That Gained her some indirect respect. However with, all that respect, she still could not use inside toilet. Just a little known, black history about the strength of the people that survived, this type of torment, back in the day. You people come from a line of people who did not use Therapy to survive and raise a family of productive people
Cherish your ancestor, and develope some backbone if you don't have it. If not for you, in the remembrance of them.
Phyllis Lawson thank you. I could never understand white ppl had hate for blacks but they would have their sucking on black ladies breast and after using the outside toilet 😂smart white peoples 😂
I was a kid in the 80s & grew up in conditions like this in S. Carolina & no one was happy unless it was alcohol involved. We had a wood burning stove/heater, the women would wash clothes on a wash board & large black wash pot, canned fruits, vegetables, & some meats, we made cane syrup & still do today, & also butchered hogs back then & today. Anyway, I enjoyed the video.
Moca Couture You have an awesome skill set, you are aware that most community organizations operate under the auspices of helping our people in this area.
really really
oh dont worry....soon very soon....we will go back to those "memories" especially the way things are going.....Johns Island, SC
shas wards Thank you 😊! I remember ppl back then we're always helpful to one of another. It wouldn't matter if they didn't care for each other, however if the person was in need of help they all would step & lend a helping hand. Where I live now, ppl will work together only to a certain extent.
Loreal Drayton My paternal grandmother was a Drayton. I wonder if we are related. Also, my brother's stepdaughter is related to the Drayton family in Mt. Pleasant & John's Island. I don't know them, but I've been meeting fam all over US. I prefer the memories lol. I can't do all of those things today, even though, I'm not old.
The messaging in this video is slick, Mike.
Both sets of my grandparents were from the South. And, I guarantee you this type of narrative is exactly why they moved to Detroit.
The narrator is saying everything but "sharecropping".
Basil Rathbonez I don't dispute your view, My Bro.
My comment was about the video's packaging and what both sets of my grandparents WEREN'T going to do. 🌱
That was not their land that was the white people's land, they were sharecroppers . What the Docu is about is for those people to stay there. Many black people were leaving going up north because the living condition was so bad where they were, people were starving. So they came up with a program The Stay At Home program to keep black people there to sharecrop and they started the program to help the improve their life. So they wont all leave and go up north. and I think the was during the depression.
Tailor-Made Media DING DING DING DING DING COME ON DOWN!! Exactly that’s why they created the sharecroppers union with Ned cob being the union spokesman
Did you see the 'year' this was made? A sad time for sure but, a start to hopefully better times to come - still, after all those years past.
That beautiful woman they called Sally Smith, her real name is Redoshi. She is the last survivor of the last slave ship out of Africa, the Clotilda. She was 12 and sold at auction with an older man from another trib and was to be considered his child bride. They stayed married too, until he passed first. Then she passed in 1937. She's a magnificent women who should be an inspiration to everyone today.
@@debraobinna7120 , thanks for including more info. I just found out about Redoshi at The New York Times where a link led me here to see her beautiful face.
My family were successful as farmers in Louisiana.
were successful.
12 or however many of us living in a home back, is what we need to do now. Village living is our I inate natural way, we were set up to be individualistic, materialistic and divided by colonialism. Now everybody is in debt, working to have stuff, do stuff and travel. It's not working, and never will, because our true family/tribe structure must be restored, living for, of, by, and with each other, building and advancing collectively from the inside out.
😎😎🙂👏👏👏✊👊
job mobility is a white man's curse, having their children live in different parts of the country and globe to follow the money. And now POC do the same. Live near your family and where your family roots are, you'll live longer.
Well said
We are a tribe, a real community Judah will rise again.
Sekhem Asaru, even as far back as the sixties large negro families lived on the same land as their parents or grand parents. They were able to make out better together by raising their own food.
Well said
They are making it seem like everything was fine and dandy, like these people were happy to be living under these conditions.
When we did the farming, food was food... now food is not even real
That Girl not even pussy...!
I always said if you have a small piece of land you are rich. You can plant your own food hunt for deer pheasant squirrel fish etc.
Now we are enslaved by food lobbies. The food now has no nutritional value. It is just like eating plastic it does more harm than good, reason why obesity, cancer, etc are wildly spread
Knew I would find some yt privileged nonsense would come up in the comments
It's growing more and more illegal for anyone to grow their own food and collect our own rain water supply
Integration ruined our pride, joy, love for one another, and our unity.
Wow, racism from both sides of the spectrum right before your eyes folks... 🤦
It ruined the black economy...black dollars circulate more in a segregated fashion.
Thank you BEEN SAYING DAT‼️🔥
The problem in my opinion is that they forced integration at gunpoint after removing Jim Crowe laws. They went too far and made blacks attend white schools which also forced parents to move into white neighborhoods and shop in white communities. This made the black communities and businesses suffer. Had they just lifted the laws and did nothing you would still have those businesses and more today. Integration was already happening naturally with marriages and some local communities throughout the nation. Certain businesses got in trouble because they just wanted to make money and didn't care who sat where. Politics ruined the black community.
@Andrea Mendenhall It's already been tried. Look up Liberia. Pretty interesting history that got ruined by corruption.
People used to work so hard.
I love this channel ❤️ , I learn so much watching these vids.
Don't miss the lesson in this video. Knowledge is power. The mindset then vs those now is mind blowing.
Today U.S. farmers are growing corn and a hybrid type of wheat. Now we have Americans with increased diabetes and hypertension due to that high fructose corn syrup in the highly processed food.The government pays the farmers to grow these subsidies.
Dianne So much dignity.
Its not the food, it's the people who consume it. Those with diabetes and hypertension likely lead unhealthy lives due to their own decisions. I know you guys hate hearing that...
Tempest Are you aware that food deserts exist in the U.S. whereby many citizens are unable to obtain healthy food sources? Usually, highly processed foods and fast foods are the only available sources of food for these residents. The United States was founded on racism and later we added classism. We can see the evidence just by driving through different communities-the predominantly lower socioeconomic areas versus the affluent areas, also observing the racial differences and disparities of each area. Count the number of fast food restaurants and packaged beverage (liquor stores), convenient stores and full service grocery stores in lower income areas. These residents should not have to travel 10 or more miles to buy healthy and nutritious foods.
Our government has failed its citizens. The U.S. Government gives farmers money to produce an excessive amount of corn, wheat and soy. Almost everything that we consume has at least one of these three ingredients incorporated within them. These three highly processed agricultural staples are part of the reason we see an increase in hypertension, diabetes and other health problems in the U.S. I can also add that weed killer and genetic engineering are part of the manufacturing of corn, wheat and soy. Maybe nutrition and home economics classes should be returned to the school curriculum. Also, we can’t expect that low wage earners can afford to buy ‘healthier’ foods if most of their earnings are allotted for rent.
@@dianne8340 I did not know any of that. You have altered my whole outlook, and should seek to become a great sage.
This should've been the start of black supermarkets all across the United States, booker t was right....
yo sun it was then whites got mad and started the KKK bullshit
BLACK WALL STREET
@jorge alberto ospna So...you deny that the party switch happened?
Also, both political parties of people did this so...
@@yungheat84 IT WASN'T THE KKK...IT WAS REGULAR WHITE CITIZENS..
@jorge alberto ospna Yeah, those Dems are so evil, making ppl wear masks to try not to spread a deathly virus. Meanwhile those same Reps who took to the streets with guns and tiki torches killing peacfull BLM protestors are now armed and ready to kill just so they don't have to wear masks? And that's fine? Okey doke.
I'm 56 years old and from SC. My grandparents and my parents, and my husbands family who were very poor, all had farms. We picked our food as well. I remember it being a source of an education in that hot ass sun!!! We didn't do anything in the Spring or summer until we worked in the garden. Shelled peas and learned how to can. No privilege here. This is an extraordinary video!
Farming is a good skilled trade
Joseph Morris hell yea could never go wrong learning how to grow your own shit you healthy wise and economy
Farming WAS** a good skilled trade.
If only blacks were given reparation.after slavery.blacks got nothing after slavery.but a hard life.
They couldn't pay me enough.
Blacks do get reparations. Ever heard of welfare checks?
America - built on the back of others ... how cruel humans treated others during that time-frame in American history and this history should not be forgotten.
I really enjoyed this..it is a rare glimpse into life then...no one seems downtrodden or in lack...
i'm guessing whitey took a lot of profits from these farm workers, otherwise why did they move north by the millions?
They're not going to show you the downtrodden part, but let's be real it was1938 Jim crow and the black farmer lived in fear!!! Whites could come anytime and help themselves we didn't have access to healthcare or education and lynching was ever present let's not get all nostalgic and forget what Jim crow rural south was like!!!!
@@ricodelavega4511 you know it!!!! This vid is a watered down lie!!!!
I have to glean the good ways from this videos that we must learn now. (Covid, Stock Market farce, Unemloyment, etc. ) I've recently begun canning my food last September, dehydrating this year. I've been making soap for over 20 years. I don't plan to be standing on food lines any time soon because I have to. I've started gathering supplies 4 years ago. Black people!! Stop going on vacation, buying stuff you don't need. Peace!
If only as much work was put into academics ,My feeling are at odds about this film,Thanks for bring it into my life it stimulates thought that's for sure.
man!!!! we used to do it all. remember my great grandmas lil farm n Texas between San Antonio and Houston, me n my bro used to spend whole summer down there n 70s. i love my people
Redoshi sent me here!!! Acunamatata@
YOLMAD GITMORE same
Hard times create strong people. Strong people create good times. Good times create weak people. And weak people create hard times.
William Dukane Amen. And even harder times are coming
That's deep
Rofl.
Yes
BEAUTIFULLY SAID...SAID BEAUTIFULLY.😄
Dude stayed calling us “boys” in the video 🤷🏾♂️😑
Its crazy we went from growing everything to growing nothing 😫
:D
Exactly. We went from taking care of ourselves and our families to waiting for handouts without any sense of pride for what we're doing.
The term “boys” was used referencing the FFA and 4H programs for school aged kids, “schoolboys” not the racist diminutive “boy”. As a shot in time, this was 1938, closer in time to slavery than 1938 is to now. Plessy v Ferguson was still the law of the land. Actually these govt. efforts through the D of A local agents was a great thing in the South. The same programs were used for both blacks and whites in rural areas of the North. This film was strictly propaganda to justify the expenditures of the federal govt. on what previously had been locally initiated and funded outreach. We would likely do far better with this kind of program than forcing our less fortunate into city style government housing in areas that can’t carry the population by normal peaceful interaction, free transactions between individuals who know best what will help them best. We are being bound by the velvet chains of huge arrogant government. It is impossible to suffer from too much freedom and individual liberty.
@@jerryyoung184 SHUT THE FUCC UP WITH THAT TIRED RHETORIC! GET a LIFE! GET a BRAIN SCAN!
GET SOME SLEEP! JUST GET THE HELL 👐AWAY FROM 😷 HUMANS...YOU REGURGITATING CULT MEMBER!
@@whome9392 Yes, say dat.
Ms. Redoshi, the only known survivor of the Clotilda 🖤🙏🏾
thats questionable. Sally didnt look 110
Mrs Redoshi was the last living survivor of the Clotilda, who died in 1937, another one was Cudjoe Kazoola Lewis from Africatown-Alabama, died in 1935. They were the last two living survivors.
That's what I came here for
I wonder how we would narrate this documentary.
The commentary would be quite different if given by OUR perspective. I do not praise this video by no means!
Not like a damn wildlife documentary, that's for damn sure.
yes he was degrading these hardworking people
it's like someone narrating on the discovery channel
I know I'm just writing, this is great, I've been watching a lot of your documentaries great job. Tha Ms reelblack
Remind me in New Bern North Carolina oh my dad side my granddaddy's house my granddaddy was a farmer are fresh vegetables and fruit everyday and fresh meat to eat!
Heavy Gratitude.
Ps Peace to The Ancestors.
Yum, I know that food was good back then.
You have to look at this through 1938 view. It was during the depression. My grandparents were farm hands and lived in a two room shack on the farm. No plumbing or electric. They ate what they grew and canned their food. They were very poor and white.
Great video 👍👍
Great video of cooperativeness. Golly they been thru it! And then the narrator sayd they have "to start at the bottom" im thinkin, whaaa? Arent they already there from what weve done to them? Sheesh
We (Black people) need to get back to agriculture. It's big money too. A multi-billion dollar business. Most farmers around where I live (mostly White people) are millionaires. Wish I was a farmer's daughter.
The woman 2:11 was the last surviving slave who came from Africa !
Reminds me of Mississippi
You from here?Mississippi?
i grow veggies every spring,summer and fall on the few acres of land that i have.i have been doing this every since i was 12 yrs old when i was living with my parents although freezers have taken the place of storing veggies in jars,,but i still can tomatoes,snap beans and some cabbages,okra and collards in a jar.my parents taught me how to can veggies in a jar...mason,ball or kerr jars are great.
The struggle still goes on .
I have very mixed emotions about this video 🤷🏽♀️
Why mixed feelings, I’m interested in your answer
@@richerich9238 me too
I hope that this video doesn’t make you feel ashamed if this is the life you and your family came from! I 😞My family came from this and I still own my 36 acres of land my Father left me!
This reminds me of the Tuskegee experiment . They used these sharecroppers for syphilis study
This is priceless.
How far we have fallen!
That's a hell of a lot more.then when I was growing up.but it still looks like a hard life. 5/21/18
My family was farming in Oklahoma
Amen‼️
Wow, if we could farm our own land and teach like these 4h, you never hear this about us.
imagine if there had been no segregation in the south, some or all of these major agrobusinesses today would be black owned.
My mother's daddy was a tobacco farmer!
Your "mother's daddy", also known as your "grandfather". Lol
We today need to unite and help each other like they once did. They had their OWN economy going on . Much Respect. The way things are going, we may have to go back to this. Peace my People.
My grandad told me alot about dis time
It funny how this ppl got same culture as how African lived by farming and big family share one room
We populated africa too.
A realistic and mature portrayal of the challenges of organized change.
Change for the worse.
did you check the women of that was born in Africa message
is this the attempts to soften the destructive time period, and white European inflicted pain of sharecropping???
Washington Carver really helped the farmers.
And people today think they have it tuff.
The narrators language sounds like how my 90 year old grandma talks now. That's why I'm watching old videos so I can better understand why she acts the way she does and show no affection to anyone. Yes. We are black and lived on a farm most of our lives.
I meant thanks reelblack.
I grew up in the south, I'm 70. Most of the black farms were share croppers. They only had access to poor producing land.
I LOVED THIS FILM! I love it because it advocates self reliance, resourcefulness, hard work, self-improvement, Capitalism and depicts Negros in a positive way.
As I was watching it I was thinking three things: first, if these same principles espoused in this film were applied by those living in impoverished rural areas all across our country today, it would improve their living conditions and raise them out of poverty. Secondly, this film had to have been produced by a Republican cause. Finally, the film appears to be very Booker T-esque. I was right about B.T.W., I say Republican production because it portrays Negros as being industrious and can be entrepreneurs like anyone else (Democrats would portray Negros as ignorant, shiftless, useless, and targeted for extermination). Well, Booker T. Washington was a Republican, as all Negros were prior to the late 40s, and I'm sure he'd be one proudly today.
Let's keep it real, today repugblicans aren't old Northern type. Lincoln, freed slaves to save the Union!
Most Dixiecrats are former Southern Democrats turned GOP after Goldwater lost to Johnson after he pass 60 civil rights bill. Pres J said we've lost south forever. Got that right! Mitch "bull connor" McConnell , think he was from Alabama.
GOP don't do dang thang for poor whites, yet they vote for gop & survive off Dems policies! Health Care; they're on Medi- caid too! Appalachia; Miss , LA etc most red States collect more govt asst, rely on blue states tax base support them.
What's the word, live off another? hint starts w/ P end w/e.
Dems is party cares for humans feel healthcare etc are essential. Tell a christian by deeds they do! FYI Black, not Negro!
@@elliecarrol2126 Great public miseducation you have there EC. I prefer debating minds like yours in an open forum with a live audience and let healthy minds decide which is right.
Give it back to the owners..yall took..
✊🏿✊🏾✊🏽✊🏼✊🏻✊
Im looking to preserve caninng food...
Great film!
My mother was a farmer, AMEN Springfield
2:10 has been identified as the last survivor from the last slave ship from Africa.
@@nicholasb5458 Is that the Jews who claim to have built the pyramids in those 2k years huh? :) The strongest inbreds of Jews cannot even lift a bus together let alone building pyramids some thousands years ago. It is a nice fanatasy to create if you wanted to enslave humans cos "Hey, we were also slaves. It is all normal". When whites and jews in the future are made to pay for their crimes, only would the likes of u think twice before u open ur mouths. But enjoy ur fanthom powers for now.
we grew up....on canned goods...smoked meats...and game and fish...and we loved our fellow man
unless you did a same....dont you dare speak down to us...we are human beings
I would love to live somewhere like this the food is much healthy and you would never go hungry and you can help lots of people
Can you imagine all the lenchings and rapeing was going on during this time
Not nearly as much as happens in Chicago today, perpetrated by our own.
Troy C Many but that's the party of history that white folk love to downplay or ignore. It doesn't make them look very good.
@Tj Gard wow that's exact same thing I was thinking in my head don't take away from the good part of farming
**LYNCHINGS AND RAPING**.
No. Why would i?
What happened? If only families today can still adopt to how they did thingd back then, we'd have fewer men standing on the streets selling drugs, and more family businesses.
Integration is what happened...
Education if you have what it takes
The real true Americans
I was raised like this and was a happy farmer boy I wore my suspenders high and proud by golly
When he said that the children were proud of working (basically slave labor on the fields) i lost it. He need to tell his children that.
Cool video
we are still growing
i like this people
I do remember mom canning.
This documentary doesn't mention hardships and prejudices the black farmers faced attempting to getting their products to the open market. Propaganda.
Black people was doing better in 1938 then 2019
Yep. And if we would have kept going in that direction, we would be way better off today. We would be running the farming industry just like we run sports and entertainment.
They were being burnt alive
My family farmed in Alabama.
Everyone giving positive statements about this sharecropping video has lost their minds. There isn’t anything desirable about these living conditions. This was a horribly time for blacks in America. Sure there was some success stories but not many. Why do you think so many black people migrated north to work in factories. Are we really this uneducated about out history?
Beautiful❤
Hear chick chick chick chick chick chick chick chicken Wings LoL 😂🙌!
My Grandparents would get pissed just to see those people comming, and so would all of the neighbors.
They mention painting with “pipe clay.” I think that’s lead :-(
No, it's fine grained white clay used to making pipes for smoking tobacco.
Thank you for sharing this. With your permission, may I share this with members of my group?
No STFU
During that time, black farmers were 1 in 7 of ag producers. Now, it's only 1 in 100 producers.
RovingRoy I think it's less than 1 in every hundred
American Indian Culture !!!
My ppl worked the land the whole time we been here..they knew exactly what they were doing...now did they receive FAIR value on the crop? I doubt it...
I would like to hear stories of black slave owners before 1860.