(01) Introduction to Carbohydrate Metabolism | Metabolic Pathways of Carbohydrate | Biochemistry

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Carbohydrate metabolism is a fundamental biochemical process involving the breakdown and synthesis of carbohydrates to produce energy and maintain the body's functions. Here's an overview:
Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are organic molecules consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, typically with a hydrogen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water). They are a primary source of energy for the body and are found in foods such as grains, fruits, vegetables, and dairy products. The main types of carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides: These are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Disaccharides and Polysaccharides: Disaccharides, like sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar), are composed of two monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides, such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose, consist of long chains of monosaccharide units.
Stages of Carbohydrate Metabolism
1. Glycolysis: This is the first step in the breakdown of glucose, occurring in the cytoplasm of cells. One molecule of glucose (a six-carbon sugar) is converted into two molecules of pyruvate (a three-carbon compound), generating a net gain of two molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and two molecules of NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).
2. Pyruvate Oxidation: Pyruvate produced in glycolysis is transported into the mitochondria, where it is converted into acetyl-CoA. This step also produces NADH and releases carbon dioxide.
3. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle, a series of reactions that take place in the mitochondrial matrix. The cycle produces ATP, NADH, FADH2 (flavin adenine dinucleotide), and carbon dioxide.
Oxidative Phosphorylation: The NADH and FADH2 generated in previous steps donate electrons to the electron transport chain, a series of protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The movement of electrons down the chain drives the production of ATP through a process called chemiosmosis, where ATP synthase produces ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. Oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor, forming water.
Storage and Release of Carbohydrates
1. Glycogenesis: This is the process of converting glucose into glycogen for storage in the liver and muscle cells. Glycogen is a polysaccharide that serves as a short-term energy reserve.
2. Glycogenolysis: When energy is needed, glycogen is broken down back into glucose-1-phosphate and then into glucose-6-phosphate to enter glycolysis or be released into the bloodstream.
3. Gluconeogenesis: This is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, such as amino acids and glycerol. It primarily occurs in the liver and helps maintain blood glucose levels during fasting or intense exercise.
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