The Arc Transmitter (Poulsen Arc) and the Titanic
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- Опубликовано: 15 май 2018
- The Poulsen Arc was a vital part of early radio history. How was it invented, how does it work and what does that have to do with the Titanic? This is a story of a chemist with a basement full of batteries, a trailblazing female scientist, her husband's musical grad student, a Dane who made the impossible, possible, and an overworked telegraph operator.
Check it out!
The deleted scenes from James Cameron's 1997 "Titanic" were taken from • Titanic deleted scene:... (and short clips used without profit for educational purposes so I should be OK (cross fingers))
As usual the music is from the fabulous Kim Nalley. 
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I bet this needed a lot of research. Thanks for this video, it's rare to find such organized and helpful information.
Cool channel! I love this type of channel that talks about stuff that wouldn’t appear many other places. It seems like a real labor of love.
Thanks! It is definitely a labor of love. Lots of labor. Lots of love.
I finished an undergraduate degree in electrical engineering without learning about anything except computers and integrated circuits. I finally got some classes on power systems in grad school, but I still don't know much about communications. Thank you for these videos.
As I understand it, the rotary gap was the means of transmitter used on the Titanic. This was a
rotor with equally spaced teeth around it, spun a fraction of an inch from a very high voltage.
a capacitor wired to a coil is a so called 'Tank circuit'
Just as an aside, the transmitter aboard the RMS (not SS) Titanic operated by the Marconi Company was rated at 5,000 watts, the most powerful afloat at the time. Titanic's distress call was clearly received by a number of stations on the mainland. The distress signal was passed to other ships. Sadly, none were close enough to respond in time. An interesting fact was the service voltage Titanic used. Only 100 volts DC.
Royal Mail Ship...seems an odd designation rather than straight up SS...Steam Ship... Well spotted 👉🇬🇧👈👉😷👈
I thought I knew about the history of electricity, but I had no idea whatever about arc transmitters and the negative resistance of arcs. Thank you for enlightening me. The use of the negative resistance of the arc to amplify a signal is, with completely different technology, reminiscent of a tunnel diode!
zh84 it’s amazing how prophetic the singing arc was - basically the backbone of EE playing “god save the Queen” in 1900!
Arc lamps were used much later than the 1920's for search and spot lights, in fact I remember seeing them in use as late as the 1970's (maybe later). The carbon arc requires a ballast resistor in series with it when used on DC, and a resistor or capacitor ballast in series when used on AC. As you described, this is because the arc behaves as a negative resistance, which means that the current drawn will go UP as the voltage applied across it drops. If a negative resistance is applied across a tuned circuit, this creates a power oscillator that can be connected to an antenna as a transmitter. This is how the arc transmitter works. Years later, a solid state device known as the tunnel diode was invented that also acts as a negative resistance. So the carbon arc was actually an early tunnel diode.
Both carbon arcs and tunnel diodes gradually eat themselves up, so there's that, too!
I actually ran an arc light in a movie projector, mid 70's. It was kind of a touchy thing; I had to touch the points together to start the arc, but I didn't want to look at the points directly when they lit up. A friend did and he was flash blinded for an hour.
I can't believe that I just discovered this channel! Kathy is a great researcher and presenter and I am going to have to binge watch all this wonderful content!
Me too!!! Just started a bit of a bingefest to catch up👉🇬🇧👈👉💎👈!!!
Here here. Excellent
Thank you. A really complex history.
During the early 1960's, I operated a 35 mm movie projector using copper clad carbon rods.
Arc Lamps were used in theater film projectors well into the 60s... I know because I spent many hours testing motion picture film products in a projection room... subsequently, the arcs in the projectors were replaced by Xenon lamps... I'm old enough to be a film historian... lol
Maam, you are a lifesaver!
Thank you so much for this informative video.
I'm glad that I've found your channel. Please keep up the good work.
So glad you liked it and found it helpful
The Alexanderson dynamo transmitter still exists and is fired up once a year to send continuous wave transmissions
You mean Morse
Simple, well researched, clearly presented, no commercial agenda. This is what The Internet was meant to be.
Having constructed several replicas of both SPARK transmitters and POULSEN ARC transmitters, there is absolutely no way to operate multiple transmitters at the same time in a local area without interference between the two. Practical tuning allowing different frequencies to be differentiated is nearly impossible. In 1912 both systems used either a 600 meter wavelength or what was at the time considered "short" wavelength, 300 meters by inserting a large capacitance into the antenna lead. One advantage over the Marconi system of 1912 was that it allowed "full break-in" which up until that time, was a miraculous operational convenience. This allowed an operator to listen for other signals in between key breaks. This was possible for two reasons: the use of the Marconi Magnetic Detector which was impervious to vibrational issues from the ship's engines and the fact it could be connected to the antenna continuously (without having to change a switch from "send" to "receive," and an auxiliary pair of shorting contacts attached to the Morse sending key lever which shorted out the operator's headphones so his ears did not get blasted by his own signals. No other wireless system at the time had effectively mastered this. Other systems that used similar Poulsen transmitters included Telefunken which mostly used Slaby-Arco designed arc sets.
You constructed replicas? Me too! How did you go about the Arc? It´s a big problem for me since I don´t have much tooling, so I´m reverting to ´semi-arcs´ as used by Goldsmidth during his experiments with Radiotelephony in the 1907-1914 period here in Belgium. I´m trying to group together as much people as possible with first hand knowledge and interest, and get some ´network´ set up to keep alive this knowledge, since if you worked with these things... Well, you know it´s not half as simple as it seems, and there was a lot of science/knowledge behind these things that are near-forgotten.
Sincere regards/73 de ON4SPK (Spark, yes)
PS. If you´re interested in exchanging ideas/designs or documents, send a message, and we´ll figure out a way to get this organized.
Lots of new information. Thanks.
2:50 I think that a better explanation of negative resistance characteristic of arc is that increasing the current lead to lowering the voltage drop across the arc itself, while in regular ohmic resistance increase in current will result in increasing voltage across the resistor (E=IR).
thank you for talking about hertha ayrton
My pleasure, I’ve actually become fascinated with her and want to write a book about her but I’m busy right now. But it’s on the list cause I think she’s just amazing and fascinating. Had you heard of her before?
I was a radar tech in the Canadian military and knew a lot about communication electronics. I had heard of the arc radios but never learned how they worked and had never heard of the Poulsen Arch.
Interesting! I had a great uncle by marriage who was a telegraph operator on the night shift in Newfoundland when the Titanic sent its SOS. He listened to the unfolding drama in Morse code in real time. I am not aware that he recorded it though. What a night.
That is fascinating! I hope you recorded him talking about it.
@@Kathy_Loves_PhysicsHi again, I only heard that story from other relatives, and did not record details. I knew him when young. I did read that a telegrapher elsewhere in Newfoundland recorded the Morse code communications of the Titanic disaster. Other anecdotes... My great uncle was captured in WW1 and said it was hard at first--very hungry. He was assigned to work on a farm and the farming family treated him decently for the rest of the war. At the end of his career, he ran the local post office. Another anecdote--an in-law's grandfather became a ham radio operator in his teens when the call signs were only 4 letters long, and put himself through undergrad working as a shipping radio operator, despite the Depression. He eventually became Canada's first radio astronomer. I hope that your lectures inspire the young, as well as fleshing out the backgrounds of what others learn in engineering and physics courses. Thanks for everything.
@@peterbudgell7339 the history of radio astronomy is also quite interesting.
Thanks. I didn't know there was an alternative to Marconi's spark transmitter at the time. One small error unrelated to the tech, the ship was the RMS Titanic not SS Titanic.
I love randomly watching your videos. Thanks for all this work.
Re: Carbon Light Arce illumination. In 1972 when I was studding Metrology at RMIT there UNC-Metric Thread Measuring Projector used Carbon-Arce as a light sauce.
My grandfather of the same name was the Maintenance Engineer on a freighter traveling UK to US when the RMS Titanic Sunk. They had NO method of commination a part from semaphore. He could not believe Titanic had sunk when he reached the US.
Sound Synthesis!! Duddell made the first sonic oscillator, and missed out on inventing the Sound Synthesizer a hundred years early. Dang!
I think I can build a crude spark gap radio from things found on the island!
Magnet wire would be the most difficult thing to make from scratch.
These videos deserve millions of views. Great work Kathy !
1:35 carbon arc lights are still used for spotlights and, until the mid-late 20th century, for movie theatre projectors and planetarium projectors.
Great work Kathy 👍 Thank you 🙏
Very informative! thanks for making that.
Kathy is electrifying! 😍
Fascinating. This deserves more views.
The old Negative resistance, a subject all of it's own.
Marvelous! Thank you for this!
Kathy you are brilliant , you make me realise how little I know about electricity thank you
Great Video!..Thank You.
David Dunning so glad you liked it
Super duper, Kathy. Always enjoy your videos. Keep up the great work.
Great video again!
How very interesting. Than you for making this lecrure. Facinating stuff.
Love your work Kathy great storytelling xoxo
I had assumed that Spark Gap and Arc transmitters were the same thing. Thank you for the clarification! The complexities of the Arc remind me of the more modern klystron. Lots of parts working in concert.
Great explanation,i never heard those things so easy and interesting
many thanks
Awesome - I've managed to set up a small CW arc oscillator by using water cooling and a gas feed of propane bubbled through isopropyl. The waveform looks exactly like that of a relaxation oscillator, and when in operation the light output of the arc massively increases, don't ask me why. The "opaque" dark blue silicone cover would light up like I'd put several watts of LED power behind it. I was able to coax it up to around 100kHz, and this is without using a magnetic field! I gauged output power with a 12V incandescent automotive bulb connected to a shorted loop around the resonator, suggesting at least 10W of RF output. Previous experiments with much less power, using pencil leads as electrodes, easily gave 35kHz, though I didn't have a proper LC tank for that frequency at the time, and used a tiny incandescent the size of a grain of rice as the load.
Kathy I have always considered myself quite knowledgeable in electrical matters (BSc EEng 1972) and will confess to all and sundry your channel has put me straight on so many circumstances that appear to have have gained merit via misinformation rather than fact. Excellent content and so enlightening with regard to commercial influences (sometimes chicanery) as the actual facts of the matter. Sherlock Holmes lives on.
Thank you for your amazing videos ma'am. Since the arc transmitter can produce continuous waves, what was the need for the Alexanderson alternator?
Great question, the arc transmitter Was still pretty crude and did not give a very defined frequency (far better than a spark up generator but still) whereas the Anderson alternator was very clear but also super expensive and big and complicated.
Amazing history. Lord Armstrong bought the rights to develop the Poulsen Arc in the US for $500K... I've always wanted to dig deeper into that story. Another Dane worked with Poulsen named Peder Olaf Pedersen...he wrote some amazing books on electrical discharges. Poulsen also developed the wire recorder in the late 1800s!
Thank you for letting me see this video.
Alright! In half a century of radio I had not heard this particular bit of the history. Good work!
Just hooked to this channel what a wonderful content
The ringing effect can easily be observed in the secondary ignition voltage of a car spark ignition system
Fantastic!
Very interesting video, thank you !
Fascinating !!!!
Amazing lessons with details missed before! :-D
LOVE YOUR CHANNEL!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!😀
Thought I would start a bingefest of your postings with this video...not disappointed...from your latest subscriber @ a cold damp and overcast South East London LALALA 👉🇬🇧👈👉💎👈
8:25 One tiny correction in this otherwise excellent presentation. The Titanic was a "Royal Mail Steamer" (a commercial ship chartered to carry British mail) thus was "RMS Titanic," not "SS Titanic" (which is "steam ship").
Well spotted...👉🇬🇧👈
Or? should it be HMS? as "Queen" Victoria died in 1901?
@@davefellhoelter1343 - No. "HMS" (His/Her Majesty's Ship) is reserved for Royal Navy vessels. Titanic was a private commercial ship that was chartered to carry Royal Mail (as were most other British passenger ships)
This was surprisingly good!
LeonidasSthlm thanks?
+Kathy Loves Physics I think he means for such a small channel, the quality is exceptional!
+Kathy Loves Physics I think he means for such a small channel, the quality is exceptional!
McRaiged I should edit my response to be, “thanks!!”
There are others that think the exchange with the Titanic and the other operator was not aggressive, just "usual" over the air communication "protocol" of that era.
It would be like looking at a male college student chat group of today and thinking that certain in group phrases are mend to be offensive, when in reality, they are just normal "slang".
Note that the operates where young men that went trough the same education and where basically a group of nerds talking to each other.
The "your to loud" specifically is just due to the fact that they could not adjust the volume.
An amazing channel! There is almost no information about this transmitter on the internet. Thanks for the video! There were a lot of things I didn't understand and your video helped me a lot about it. Is there a way to create a continuous wave, other than conventional methods?
After all these years I had a down to Earth history lesson that is in more detail than what my college gave me in a public education. Yes they still showed the black and white films of the USA back in the 90’s, but I guess they dont want to enourage us to engadge in dangerous experiments that will pollute the airwaves and perhaps distrupt comms. In the labs many (electrical) students were blowing up capacitors, even short circuits, imagine handing the teenagers an sparking telsa coil. I’m from a country town of Boulder in Western Australia. Inexpress my appreciation for this channel in taking the time in gluing together this wonderful rare bits of information. I have never seen presented in such a satisfying way, I its feels suffiently conscise but not boardering (boring) techno babble and chronologically linked by ideas, that is the magic that fills our empty voids. Love it, skipping the detailed biography, that’s reserved for the silver screen.
I once refurbished a Watson - Victor Diathermy unit. It was effectively a arc that cut through human skin and cauterised as it went. It was essentially and arc transmitter. The Spark gap was about an inch in diameter and had three screws to position the plates such that the arch was even throughout. It was a beautiful piece of equipment ..Probably 40s vintage.
I do not see the link between the downsides of Spark transmitters or the Titanic disaster in any way. I´ve build spark transmitters since I was 7yo, I´m 31yo and still building/researching everything ´from Spark to Arc´ (and vacuum tube, some, to 1920). No offense intended, but shipborn arc transmitter were considered generally to be a disaster, and Arc transmitters were mostly relegated to Megawatt monsters on land working at VLF-frequencies. In the end both Arc and Spark suffered from the same inherent problems: What´s the point of having Continuous Waves if there´s no receiver to receive it? The vacuum tube was considered more an annoyance than a gain for the first 10 odd years of it´s existence, and even if they were available (which they were not in big numbers before the 1920s), it was in land-based receiving stations they found their home. Emergency transmitter aboard ships were of the Spark type way in to the 1950s, and in some countries even into the 1970s they were used as ´third line´ lifeboat affairs. On the other side, the highly demanding Poulsen Arc was ideal for big land-stations at low frequencies, but it never got off the ground as a Naval method of signalling. The US Navy build dozens of Arc stations, put a 5000W Arc transmitter aboard the USS Texas, but in the end they always kept a 1000W Spark transmitter nearby as well. The irony of the case is, by the time the Poulsen Arc had grown adult, the Spark transmitter had become such a fast-switching method, both systems just overlapped each-other in principle of operation. People have it very difficult to understand that before the 1920s.... Innovations traveled much slower, and only in 1927 were BOTH the Arc and Spark transmitters officially relegated to 2nd line duty, which is basically banned.
And all the measures you mention that could´ve saved Titanic? They were all in place: there was an agreed frequency for emergency reports, and as for the Arc-stations? They wouldn´t have made a difference, since nobody could receive Continuous Waves at the nearby ships (see above) also there´s the fact there´s only ONE antenna to work from in the first place, and that has to be tuned to a specific wavelength in order to be an effective radiator of that wavelength. Arc stations couldn´t ´frequency hop´ either, they were mostly fixed tuned to a few preset positions, same for Spark Transmitters. In fact, when it comes to an emergency, I´d pick the spark transmitter over the Arc any day, and that´s what all Navies in the world did.
I can go on forever about this subject, but I´m busy actually building one of these things, or rather adapt it to the point it´s usable today. Which is.... Yeah, not that easy! :-)
PS. Ol´ Jack Bins did hear what the SS California sent, but he just ignored him, increased the transmitter power on his side... Which is the radio man´s equivalent of putting up your middle finger. He even signaled back ´working Cape Cod, shut up´ (correct there) at which point the operator aboard the SS California just had had enough of Titanic´s rather arrogant behaviour... And went to bed :-) That´s why they ignored the flares too! They were a mere simple merchantman, while the rich people were having things their way again (remember this is 1912, not 1992), firing fireworks etc. Had nothing to do with technology, pure poor operator procedure, safety protocol and above all... *Some good old greed!* :-) In those days, operators were payed by wealthy costumers to keep them updated about horse races, stock exchange, family reports, stuff like that. And the majority of profit for a radio operator was in sending messages for rich people, he (literally) got payed per message, not per hour of work. These guys signaled faster than any of us can SMS, up to 75 words PER MINUTE, because ´brass-pounding´ is where the real money was. Radiomen worked their way ´up the food-chain´, some were as young as 15 years old when they went to sea on small freighters that got 7th rate equipment compared to the Titanic´s. This ofc, is never shown in ANY movie, but severe restrictions were put on this ´privatization´ of radio aboard ships post-1912. Operators all have to listen 5´ every 30´ on the emergency frequency, even if there´s a guy waving a 10 dollar bill to get you to send a message to shore about some stock sale, and hence do otherwise.
Oh by the way if you want, I can send a pile of link if you want, to some véry good sites on this matter. I´d place a link of the 1200 page 1931 Admiralty handbook, but that´s a little too much, even for me. :-) Irony is they still use the chronological order for education than: in 1931 Spark and Arc were both ´dead modes´, yet the books begins with understand Spark, than Arc, than tubes. And if you learn it that way, there´s a lot of things you get to understand than doing it the other way around.
This is a good start, a list of Naval pre-war stations in use:
www.navy-radio.com/xmtr-prewar.htm
Quite a few Arcs on that site, Navy Arcs, including some smaller ones.
WOWWW GREAT COMMENT... good luck with the transmitters you're building...wish I could see the outcome 👉🇬🇧👈👉😷👈
I enjoy your way of telling the history of foundation of technology. I would like you make a video regarding Crystals as oscillator and how was introduced to the early technology of broadcasting. Kudos !!
The history and ignored opportunities around the phase locked loop is also quite interesting.
I always found it interesting how many found such circuits daunting. But then, I found it interesting that so many had trouble diagnosing and repairing a switch mode power supply as well.
Understand how it works, it's far easier to figure out what's wrong.
@@spvillano back in 1986 was the first time I saw a PLL circuit on a 2 way radio … it was a big leap from Crystal . The way they use to “program the frequency “ was with a bunch of diodes … in less than a year they switched to UV EPROM and eeprom short after
The man working the wireless didn't put the iceberg warnings as a priority because the passenger wires were more important - what they get paid to do. Therefore they were put aside.
Also, thorough the day the wireless room received 6 iceberg warnings, put together they indicate a giant ice field of nearly 80 miles directly in the ship's path, but no one thinks to put them together. Most of the warnings went un-noticed on the bulletin board. Later, when the California tries to warn Titanic about ice, by interrupting Titanic's wire, Titanic's wireless operator replies rudely back "Shut Up, I'm busy." The California operator then hangs up his head set and turns in for the night.
Davin Peterson true. Don’t you think, however, that if they had two or three operators working at different frequencies they wouldn’t have been so overworked? Maybe not as rude as well so the Californian might not have gone to bed? Just a possibility.
IIRC, RMS Titanic had two radio ops. They both survived and gave evidence to the British (but not the American) official inquiry into the disaster. The ship's radio service was provided by the (British) Marconi company not White Star Lines - the ship's owners. Marconi radio was primarily a commercial service for (exceedingly wealthy) passengers - and so, yes, the radio ops' priority was to them, not the ship. I guess White Star chould have planned things better - except, Marconi was, at that time, the only provider of commercial maritime radio in the world.
The actual radio worked fine - all the Titanic's transmissions were received by the Marconi shore station at Cape Race, Newfoundland, many hundreds of miles away.
Did Marconi invent radio? Possibly not, he was very good at snaffling half formed ideas from others and making them work. He was certainly also a fine businessman, self-publicist and showman. He wasn't BTW, an Englishman - despite his royal knighthood and English gentleman lifestyle. He remained an Italian all his life and is buried in Italy.
@@alastairbarkley6572 An other source claims, that operators where not allowed to repair the radio, but did anyway. Meaning: The only reason they where able to send a distress signal was by ignoring official procedure (putting into question if the radio worked fine).
I like the huge Poulsen arc transmitter the Dutch built in Indonesia .
Real storytelling !!
Great
Thanks.
9:55 I doubt that they would have employed more operators though. More operators = more costs = less profits and they thought that the ship was unsinkable.
What I love about this video is that it can help you get off a desert island, even if you don't have a working radio.
They're illegal to use today! But if you're stuck on island, I'm sure they'd understand.
I am now imagining someone getting help from a desert island and then being fined for using an arc lamp radio!
5:50 The worlds first synthesizer!
Electric slide 🎶
Thank you for your always splendid videos! Were you aware that Poulsen invented the first magnetic device capable of sound recording six years prior to inventing the arc transmitter? The 'Telegraphone', as it was called, is the earliest predecessor to magnetic tape recorders, magnetic stripes on credit cards and magnetic hard drives. I think this invention/discovery should deserve its own video. Just a thought for inspiration.
Thank you Kathy for your awesome videos!
I've only read this once, and I question the source material, but I'll share this rumor I heard and I'm looking for confirmation or put this to sleep.
What I read was about the signal itself; it's one of the first times they used S.O.S (save our ship) as a distress signal.
It's one of the most simple Morse code letters: 3 dots for s, 3 dashes for o. Or the other way around.
Anyways, in the James Cameron movie they used "CQD", which was the old distress signal.
It could have been that most ships in the area didn't understand the new SOS code, contributing to the disaster.
Please keep in mind I'm not actually sure if this is true or not. Maybe someone like Kathy can help? Thanks.
Recently Marconi was discredited for the invention of wireless communications as it was Tesla invention. Why wasnt Tesla mentioned?
what a treasure we have here
Many thanks for another brilliant video Kathy. Can I ask if you have any Cornish ancestry? It's just that you always describe Humphrey Davy in such glowing terms.
I have absolutely no Cornish ancestry. My background is Russian/Polish/Lithuanian. I was just so surprised to find Davy to be so charming as I was first introduced to him in a TV show where he was portrayed as a villain to Faraday and snotty and upper crust. Plus, he was very cute :P
I'm still not convinced, you also say "see" a lot and in exactly the same way that the Cornish do! Are you sure a pirate didn't get into your family tree sometime back in the 18th century? Anyway, I also heard some bad stuff about Davy - basically that the Davy safety lamp was Faraday's idea.
@@bobbymcdingdong Ha! Cornish pirates?? Why not? My accent is pure Northern Californian (with a deep inability to pronounce any German word correctly, for some weird reason).
Kathy, I am working my way through your back catalogue so thanks for that. Frankly, though reluctant to criticise any part, I am not a fan of the girls singing at the start and finish.
5:42 William Dudell built the first synthesizer.
RPdigital yep basically
monophonic organ
Due to a typo?
@8:24 RMS Titanic - not SS Ttitanic
So carbon arcs share a characteristic with tunnel diodes?
Poulsen Arc
is almost similar to a vacuum lamp(tube)?
👍👍
Thanks
So it's an "arch welder" then? 🤔
I've been using the wrong tool this whole time? 🤣
Good documentary. RMS Titanic not SS Titanic. RMS means Royal Mail Ship.
Arch rival
if you want to know how the bronze age could have had access to dc batteries i can explain that as well. there is found batteries in bagdad that is many tousands of years old that contain a iron rod inside a copper tube inside a jar with a aspalt plug in the top of the jar. there is also found graves with sulfuric acid so they knew what that was. sulfur was also known 2000 years ago and the chinese at that time even had cannons and not just rockets. even if they only used a sulfur water solution it would probably work with just that. that is how the bronze age could have made batteries. even stomach acid can work for batteries extracted from the belly of animals that have consumed vinegar. you can also use sea water.
Is there really a significant difference between an arc and an arch, anyway?
Not really tbh
i’m so confused at this point 😢
Humphrey davey arc lamp
I mentioned it in my Humphrey Davy video
@@Kathy_Loves_Physics thank you, I was trying to keep track, so many interesting people
Mmmmm😊
Why music, when talking ☹
Sorry about that after people complained I stop doing it in later videos
Tobermory,Ontario received that signal from Titanic not that it did them any good.
karma that all those Daddy Warbucks overworked the radio operator
RMS Titanic not SS Titanic
Maybelline is good.
Are you saying, Reginald, IS a “ConArcist”
I guess I’ll have to Tune-In to Arcticulate the Truth from the Fusion and the Non-Fusion.
I’m going to be up all week wondering. 🤔 ☕️ 😬 Oh the Anticipation, My Dry Humor will help pass time. ☕️
Great Video 👍
God Bless.
I also want to hear more about the “Arc Pulled from the Sun” It could be useful when trying to find the Square Arceage of a MoonPie in the Dead of Night.
Thanks Again
God Bless.
Why do so many good things have to be ruined by bad music?
I have a crush on Kathy. Cute, smart and full of interesting scientific and historical facts!
Olympic Win!!!
Good moom, thanks it is your son