I remember that there was also research on organic and cristal based hard drive storage, both very expensive and taking a very long time to record something, but with huge capacities, i wonder how they are ferrying right now
nice explanation. the main problem is, as capacities go up, transfer speeds must go up too because having to read let's say 10TB from a mechanical disk will take you several days to complete and the risk for fail is big. hdd speeds have not changed much. these new technologies are awesome, but if speeds are not within reason for the capacity, one of the biggest problems in storage, still remains even for archived data.
The first computer my family had in the early 90s had maybe like 100mb of HDD storage, and I remember my dad telling me how that was enough to store the text of all the books on our bookshelf. I was incredibly impressed! This is just unfathomable
These videos are amazing, basic sciences and how they apply to real stuff. Love it! I've given up local storage years ago now, have a box of Toshiba 6tb drives just sitting there with Gbit broadband I just download everything from cloud
Barely purchased a pair of 10 TB IronWolf NAS drives... Interesting how this content gets on my recommended feed days after setting up a RAID drive. MAMR & HAMR are fascinating tech though! Just two 60 TB drives in a compatible RAID 1 setup could be all I need for preserving footage for a docfilm!
I don't think that is a smart idea. When one drive fails you want to rebuild the RAID. But there is chance higher than 50% that you get an non-correctable sector read error when reading more than about 12 TB. You would need 3 Disks.
0:22 he can't be more right lol, i'm keeping about 1 tb of movies in an external hdd and i never look back at them, it doesn't seem that i'll be able to get rid of them any time soon for some reason !
What a fantastic video simplifying a complex topic that was also fun to watch. I've been skeptical of HAMR but you seem to have put me at a bit more ease about it. I am excited to stuff my NAS with some 100 TB drives soon! :)
Sounds like a bit of old magnetic technology from 100 years ago creeping in. Excellent. Back in the days of recording magnetic tape we needed an ultrasonic magnetic 'bias' signal that was applied with the audio signal being recorded. This got around the magnetic hysteresis problem for weak audio signals so the audio-frequency magnetic signal recorded on the tape was not butchered by the magnetic hysteresis in the magnetic medium. This is just like tapping the edge of the paper when demonstrating how a bit of powdered iron would align with the field of a permanent magnet underneath the paper. The tiny bit of mechanical energy from vibrating the paper helped the iron particles to finally settle into their correct places. That's how ultrasonic bias worked back in the day. What you described for the magnetically assisted methodology you were speaking of seems conceptually identical to old ultrasonic bias to me.
Man oh man. It’s so weird that tech like CRT’s and HDD’s run off of concepts that are so much more mind-blowing and hard to wrap your head around (mostly because they take physical movement speed into account) than any of their superior modern counterparts.
All audio tape recorders use some form of bias when recording voice or music on tape. This is necessary for two reasons: one, to erase what is already recorded on tape; two, to ensure that even the most feeble sound is correctly recorded. This is normally achieved with a pre magnetization frequency (>100 KHz) applied with an "erase head" to the tape; and by applying the same frequency to the "record head", in addition to the audio signal to be recorded. The high frequency signal applied must be strong enough to override the magnetic reluctance (related to the coercivity you mention in the video) of the tape, and the various magnetic hysteresis. This high frequency signal must increase with the resistance to magnetization of the tape (the bias for a metal tape is 250% the signal necessary for a normal Fe-Cr tape). This is the first time I see a bias signal added to a digital recording. Using a radio frequency bias, in my view, is better than using heat. But this is the opinion of one, of course. Thanks for the video, Anthony
Hard drive prices haven't come down in about a decade; 4TB was the standard hard drive size in 2011, and it's still the standard size today. In the 2000's, prices used to halve every 2 years or so. Those Thailand floods irreversibly screwed the progress of hard drives.
@@macht4turbo My point is that the capacities vs prices we're at now is the same as they were 10 years ago, whereas in the 2000's capacities vs prices doubled every 2 years. We should be having 32GB drives for $130 at this point.
@@BaghaShams Price progression is not always linear like that. The consumer demand for hdd is very low right now and enterprise is able to buy drives at a much higher cost, the enterprise derived consumer hdds are more expensive that way. These huge hdds are not very viable for daily consumer use. I would argue, that if you have the demand for a raid with 32gb drivey, you are most likely going to be able to suffer the cost, you are buying enterprise equipment none the less.
@@macht4turbo Price progression was quite linear for over a decade, then it completely stopped as of the Thailand floods. That was the only point I was making. Your theory about demand is interesting, although I'm not completely convinced considering the various hobbies and professions such as photography and video production which has exploded in recent years, which all require vast amounts of redundant data storage.
I still don’t get why they can’t stripe data across the platters physically on top of each other so they can do simultaneous reads and writes off of every platter surface. So like an 8 platter HDD should be able to read/write 4 times faster than a 2 platter HDD. This seems like it’d make more sense than having two actuators.
When are we going to see the 5.25inch drives coming back? Rosewill has a nice server chassis that adapts 9x5.25 bays, to 12x3.5 inch bays, by cutting out the surrounding material, you'd be able to have more platters in a given space. I could see a 5.25 inch drive, using current technologies, being 28TB instead of 16TB
I get the impression hard disk drive prices have remained overinflated. There was a time when prices would halve when higher capacities were released but even an 8TB drive is quite high in cost considering it’s quite old. Perhaps allowing companies to buy their competition out was not a smart move as there isn’t a need to be competitive anymore and they can easily keep prices inflated. I suspect these will have enterprise pricing for a long time as there seems to be a movement to take high capacity storage out of reach of consumers budgets forcing users to subscribe to cloud storage tightly linked to certain apps like Apple Photos + iCloud, Lightroom + Adobe CC storage etc
Something I don't understand, to heat a substrate above its curie point you need mm microwaves or infrared in the 100's nanometers wavelength but the tracks are less than a 50nm width. Can you explain how a laser shining an IR light in the 1000 nm would bring the current track at curie point without erasing all the neighbor tracks. The only wavelength able to target a 50-nm track would be in the gamma ray range but gamma ray do not heat a surface they just go thru it, and are pretty nasty to human without proper shields.
Why is it that all the reporting on hard drives is about capacity? Seagate, for example, has developed a technology called Mach.2 with which they have increased IOPS and MB/s. This does not make their HDDs into SSDs, but at least more interesting if you want a compromise between capacity, price and speed.
I seriously don't understand why sequential throughout doesn't increase with an increase in density. Are they only squeezing the tracks closer together and not making the "bit pitch" (along the track) smaller?
The overriding concern of placing this much data on one device is recoverability. Unless I/O speeds are proportionally increased, the amount of time needed to extract/rebuild the data from a drive that was predicted to fail (via SMART) or had already failed (in some RAID config) could challenge the ability of the remaining like sized drives whose MTBF’s would be comparable at that moment. Even if only one drive prematurely failed and collective MTBF were not in play, how long would it take to reconstruct a RAID 5 or “10” array constructed from numerous 50TB drives? A long time even at highest SATA bus rates available today.
For the primary use, in datacenters, it isn't a problem. They still use HDDs because is still cheaper per GB than SSD, and they can balance traffic so no disk needs to run faster. In fact, this could be a nice option for having some sort of tape storage (now there are options up to 185TB!) replacement for information that doesn't require really long term storage or needs to be access fast.
This feels like Sony's MiniDisc on steroids. MDs use a laser to heat up the magnetic material to its Curie point and use magnetic field to write data. The data on MDs is read with a laser head like a CD though.
So a nano-scale laser heats up a nano-scale section of a very thin platter for a nano-scale circuit made up of nano-scale capacitors, coils, etc. to magnetize this nano-scale area of the platter. All while the platter is moving at 5400, 7200 or even 10,000 rpm and there is not only one, but several doing similar operations several times per second, all in a 3.5" enclosure... And all is being developed to happen seamlessly to be able to reliably store data not only for days, but years. *cries in exabytes*
Dude no offense but you exist at 1.25 speed and that scares me. The video is pretty fantastic, even though it gives me that very specific 'studying 30 min before the exam' anxiety.
This technologies are amazing, but one have to wonder if they even make sense. Right now we can create a 100TB ssd with easy. Clearly they are expensive, but most of the money go to the fact of they are unique. The Curie temperature is for Pierre Curie, one of his many contributions. I was a shame that he died so young, in his prime. Together with his brother (engineer) they were a magnificent couple of the experimental sciences.
Never mind the capacity limits, when is the price going to drop? The sweet spot has been 4TB for far too many years now. I currently have 3 drives in my main machine because it’s more cost-effective than buying a single equivalent-capacity drive. Don’t try this on an OS with only 26 drive letters!
Rotary data density advantage = as hard drive data density increases, hdds will overtake ssd with both speed and reliability. Hdd's will make a huge comeback in desktops as the incentive for flash memory disappearing gradually
@@akalion213 Flash memory speed is at 'saturation'. Premium ssd use ddr4 ram to speed up data throughput. But this can be added to hdd's of the future. Clearer? Oh well I tried..
@@Talia.777 Wait how? The size is literally determined by how much stuff you can squeeze in on the platters. So instead of making everything smaller just make the platter bigger.
Sounds like an excited robot voice over from the Family Guy universe of people on the verge of needing to drop a deuce. I wasn't actually looking at the screen while listening to this and when I did I thought it was the guy from The Office...
While my day to day storage is on SSDs, I still use HDDs for backups and mass storage. A 15Tb HDD is still 10 times less expensive than an SSD of equal storage. And you should never store anything "in the cloud" that you would not want shared with everyone in the world - including your wife, daughter, mother and boss. Because "the cloud" really means, "someone else's server". And you are completely at the mercy of someone else's server security. There should always be a prominent place for local storage, and local encryption, no matter how connected we become.
Dude this is the best guy from this channel
Agree
By far
🍟🐕🦔
I seriously love the Upscaled series. Don't even take a second to click the play button on these videos. Superb job 👌🏼
Same.
It's the best tech stuff in my opinion. I do think Engadget should break it off as its own channel though.
This series should have a separate channel. Fricking amazing stuff.
literally came in to the comments section to say this exact thing.
Accurate
It’s mad they haven’t done this but I think the demand is growing - comments like this appear on every video now.
Agreed
This series really has the perfect amount of technical detail.
This guy's energy is higher than the energy used by these new hard drives. 😅
Keep this guy on more videos on this channel. 👍😎
quick! get those cables, and we'll jump him?🐕🧸
I just love how much effort and detail this guy puts in his videos. He definitely needs a raise
I remember that there was also research on organic and cristal based hard drive storage, both very expensive and taking a very long time to record something, but with huge capacities, i wonder how they are ferrying right now
Remember reading about that too many moons ago
That is the road to Zardoz
lol, /s
I am loving the energy of this guy and the intense information density that i cannnot find anywhere else while still being entertaining.
Finally someone who can atleast explain nicely 👍👍
nice explanation. the main problem is, as capacities go up, transfer speeds must go up too because having to read let's say 10TB from a mechanical disk will take you several days to complete and the risk for fail is big. hdd speeds have not changed much. these new technologies are awesome, but if speeds are not within reason for the capacity, one of the biggest problems in storage, still remains even for archived data.
The first computer my family had in the early 90s had maybe like 100mb of HDD storage, and I remember my dad telling me how that was enough to store the text of all the books on our bookshelf. I was incredibly impressed! This is just unfathomable
Thanks, Chris, for another awesome episode of Upscaled! Always informational and detailed. Hope you are staying well and safe!
Great video! I like this channel because you value the content rather than releasing low-quality videos every day. Thanks.
These videos are amazing Chris. Always amazed at how easy to follow you make these explanations.
I feel so educated even though I understood nothing.
This series is heavily underrated...
Awesome presentation as always. Thanks, Chris.
From watching his videos he seems to know his work and did his research. His videos are very informative and intrguing, at least most of the times.
These videos are amazing, basic sciences and how they apply to real stuff. Love it! I've given up local storage years ago now, have a box of Toshiba 6tb drives just sitting there with Gbit broadband I just download everything from cloud
Upscaled got me to sub. This is high quality content.
Barely purchased a pair of 10 TB IronWolf NAS drives... Interesting how this content gets on my recommended feed days after setting up a RAID drive. MAMR & HAMR are fascinating tech though! Just two 60 TB drives in a compatible RAID 1 setup could be all I need for preserving footage for a docfilm!
I don't think that is a smart idea.
When one drive fails you want to rebuild the RAID. But there is chance higher than 50% that you get an non-correctable sector read error when reading more than about 12 TB. You would need 3 Disks.
Chris is the smartest 🥳 and I love the “hysterical vegan” vibe 😎
Excellent, quality content. Great job Chris, keep it up!
I love this guy, this is the best tech series I’ve seen.
Good to see you provided all sources👍👍👍👍...expecting it in all😀😀😀
My man with all the juicy stuff!
HAMR and MAMR are what Thor should have called Mjolnir and Stormbreaker.
0:22 he can't be more right lol, i'm keeping about 1 tb of movies in an external hdd and i never look back at them, it doesn't seem that i'll be able to get rid of them any time soon for some reason !
@Omar Valentini I just have a 1 tb hard drive on my gaming laptop and I have to delete games to play new ones
@Omar Valentini nice
Nice explanations with good visuals. Enough to satisfy my curiosity craving.
2:42 that animation was spot on!
What a fantastic video simplifying a complex topic that was also fun to watch. I've been skeptical of HAMR but you seem to have put me at a bit more ease about it. I am excited to stuff my NAS with some 100 TB drives soon! :)
Sounds like a bit of old magnetic technology from 100 years ago creeping in. Excellent. Back in the days of recording magnetic tape we needed an ultrasonic magnetic 'bias' signal that was applied with the audio signal being recorded. This got around the magnetic hysteresis problem for weak audio signals so the audio-frequency magnetic signal recorded on the tape was not butchered by the magnetic hysteresis in the magnetic medium. This is just like tapping the edge of the paper when demonstrating how a bit of powdered iron would align with the field of a permanent magnet underneath the paper. The tiny bit of mechanical energy from vibrating the paper helped the iron particles to finally settle into their correct places. That's how ultrasonic bias worked back in the day. What you described for the magnetically assisted methodology you were speaking of seems conceptually identical to old ultrasonic bias to me.
I wanna see this guy conduct an orchestra. 😁
Great info and explanation, btw. Keep up the good work!
5:14 It's refreshing to see someone admitting that instead of bullshitting his way through a flawed or dead wrong explanation.
Man oh man. It’s so weird that tech like CRT’s and HDD’s run off of concepts that are so much more mind-blowing and hard to wrap your head around (mostly because they take physical movement speed into account) than any of their superior modern counterparts.
Fantastic as always!
This was a absolutely amazing presentation. Well done.
I think improving speed is most important for now as backing up a 20 TB drive takes a while
I had written off this channel until I saw this... This is the perfect blend of intro and deeper dive!
9:37 : "So what are you doing to store in your brand new 60TB hard drive ?"
My "homework" folder. I'll probably need a few HAMR hard drives though
Great explanation with visuals. Thanks.
this is a very valuable information
thankyou
All audio tape recorders use some form of bias when recording voice or music on tape. This is necessary for two reasons: one, to erase what is already recorded on tape; two, to ensure that even the most feeble sound is correctly recorded.
This is normally achieved with a pre magnetization frequency (>100 KHz) applied with an "erase head" to the tape; and by applying the same frequency to the "record head", in addition to the audio signal to be recorded. The high frequency signal applied must be strong enough to override the magnetic reluctance (related to the coercivity you mention in the video) of the tape, and the various magnetic hysteresis. This high frequency signal must increase with the resistance to magnetization of the tape (the bias for a metal tape is 250% the signal necessary for a normal Fe-Cr tape).
This is the first time I see a bias signal added to a digital recording. Using a radio frequency bias, in my view, is better than using heat. But this is the opinion of one, of course.
Thanks for the video,
Anthony
I hope it's not gonna come with huge drawbacks like the SMR drive debacle.
Hard drive prices haven't come down in about a decade; 4TB was the standard hard drive size in 2011, and it's still the standard size today. In the 2000's, prices used to halve every 2 years or so. Those Thailand floods irreversibly screwed the progress of hard drives.
Well, you can only make a hdd to a certain price point, because of manufacturing. A 1tb hdd can't be way cheaper than a 4tb drive because of that.
@@macht4turbo My point is that the capacities vs prices we're at now is the same as they were 10 years ago, whereas in the 2000's capacities vs prices doubled every 2 years. We should be having 32GB drives for $130 at this point.
@@BaghaShams Price progression is not always linear like that. The consumer demand for hdd is very low right now and enterprise is able to buy drives at a much higher cost, the enterprise derived consumer hdds are more expensive that way. These huge hdds are not very viable for daily consumer use. I would argue, that if you have the demand for a raid with 32gb drivey, you are most likely going to be able to suffer the cost, you are buying enterprise equipment none the less.
@@macht4turbo Price progression was quite linear for over a decade, then it completely stopped as of the Thailand floods. That was the only point I was making.
Your theory about demand is interesting, although I'm not completely convinced considering the various hobbies and professions such as photography and video production which has exploded in recent years, which all require vast amounts of redundant data storage.
What are you taking about? The price per gb has like halved .
This guy's videos are the best.
What about LTO Ultrium for backup storage?
I still don’t get why they can’t stripe data across the platters physically on top of each other so they can do simultaneous reads and writes off of every platter surface. So like an 8 platter HDD should be able to read/write 4 times faster than a 2 platter HDD. This seems like it’d make more sense than having two actuators.
Plus the pace is perfect!
Love your videos!!
His series on various tech things is the only reason I'm subscribed to this channel! Amazing content and energy!
Great content as always.
When are we going to see the 5.25inch drives coming back? Rosewill has a nice server chassis that adapts 9x5.25 bays, to 12x3.5 inch bays, by cutting out the surrounding material, you'd be able to have more platters in a given space. I could see a 5.25 inch drive, using current technologies, being 28TB instead of 16TB
Imagine array rebuild times...
I get the impression hard disk drive prices have remained overinflated. There was a time when prices would halve when higher capacities were released but even an 8TB drive is quite high in cost considering it’s quite old. Perhaps allowing companies to buy their competition out was not a smart move as there isn’t a need to be competitive anymore and they can easily keep prices inflated. I suspect these will have enterprise pricing for a long time as there seems to be a movement to take high capacity storage out of reach of consumers budgets forcing users to subscribe to cloud storage tightly linked to certain apps like Apple Photos + iCloud, Lightroom + Adobe CC storage etc
Something I don't understand, to heat a substrate above its curie point you need mm microwaves or infrared in the 100's nanometers wavelength but the tracks are less than a 50nm width. Can you explain how a laser shining an IR light in the 1000 nm would bring the current track at curie point without erasing all the neighbor tracks. The only wavelength able to target a 50-nm track would be in the gamma ray range but gamma ray do not heat a surface they just go thru it, and are pretty nasty to human without proper shields.
Why is it that all the reporting on hard drives is about capacity? Seagate, for example, has developed a technology called Mach.2 with which they have increased IOPS and MB/s. This does not make their HDDs into SSDs, but at least more interesting if you want a compromise between capacity, price and speed.
HAMR sounds like a philosophical descendant of the old super floppy drives.
Now I will need one week to copy all the data to that drive with 100MB/s speed
I seriously don't understand why sequential throughout doesn't increase with an increase in density. Are they only squeezing the tracks closer together and not making the "bit pitch" (along the track) smaller?
Great content!
How much coffee did you have before this take? 50? 60 cups?
The overriding concern of placing this much data on one device is recoverability. Unless I/O speeds are proportionally increased, the amount of time needed to extract/rebuild the data from a drive that was predicted to fail (via SMART) or had already failed (in some RAID config) could challenge the ability of the remaining like sized drives whose MTBF’s would be comparable at that moment. Even if only one drive prematurely failed and collective MTBF were not in play, how long would it take to reconstruct a RAID 5 or “10” array constructed from numerous 50TB drives? A long time even at highest SATA bus rates available today.
Absolutely love this show. Should have WAY more views than its getting. Maybe getting drowned out by other random Egadget stuff?
This is seriously getting into Retro Encabulator territory
One big problem is, that these drives take forever to be written.
For the primary use, in datacenters, it isn't a problem. They still use HDDs because is still cheaper per GB than SSD, and they can balance traffic so no disk needs to run faster.
In fact, this could be a nice option for having some sort of tape storage (now there are options up to 185TB!) replacement for information that doesn't require really long term storage or needs to be access fast.
0:00 Surprised i didnt see a bunch of people commenting "but flash drives are so much smaller"(in the sense of small USB drives)
This feels like Sony's MiniDisc on steroids. MDs use a laser to heat up the magnetic material to its Curie point and use magnetic field to write data. The data on MDs is read with a laser head like a CD though.
So a nano-scale laser heats up a nano-scale section of a very thin platter for a nano-scale circuit made up of nano-scale capacitors, coils, etc. to magnetize this nano-scale area of the platter.
All while the platter is moving at 5400, 7200 or even 10,000 rpm and there is not only one, but several doing similar operations several times per second, all in a 3.5" enclosure...
And all is being developed to happen seamlessly to be able to reliably store data not only for days, but years.
*cries in exabytes*
You should do more UPSCALEd Type videos..
whats insane is that someone invented these
Let's help this guy with the algorithm of RUclips ;) Btw, you did a great job!
Hilarious Sidenote of magnetic direction in lavae! Love it! :D Guess for fun, have you been an exogen Tutor?
Dude no offense but you exist at 1.25 speed and that scares me.
The video is pretty fantastic, even though it gives me that very specific 'studying 30 min before the exam' anxiety.
This is hardcore, would love a 20terabyte external hard drive
Calculate how long it takes to fill the drive, when you constantly write to it.
Why do you need so much space?
@@happygimp0 For homework and games.
The big bottleneck of these high capacity hdd is Price
This technologies are amazing, but one have to wonder if they even make sense. Right now we can create a 100TB ssd with easy. Clearly they are expensive, but most of the money go to the fact of they are unique. The Curie temperature is for Pierre Curie, one of his many contributions. I was a shame that he died so young, in his prime. Together with his brother (engineer) they were a magnificent couple of the experimental sciences.
Didn't we have something like this back in the floppy disk era?
Never mind the capacity limits, when is the price going to drop? The sweet spot has been 4TB for far too many years now. I currently have 3 drives in my main machine because it’s more cost-effective than buying a single equivalent-capacity drive.
Don’t try this on an OS with only 26 drive letters!
which is the camera you use ? is it a canon ?
I search for upscaled not engadget.
thanks for your great content
Upscaled should get its own separate RUclips channel
Rotary data density advantage = as hard drive data density increases, hdds will overtake ssd with both speed and reliability. Hdd's will make a huge comeback in desktops as the incentive for flash memory disappearing gradually
That just makes no sense
@@akalion213 Flash memory speed is at 'saturation'. Premium ssd use ddr4 ram to speed up data throughput. But this can be added to hdd's of the future. Clearer? Oh well I tried..
@@addydiesel6627 Don't you think that if it could be done effectively it would've happened already?
@@akalion213 Ok just for u. I'm talking about future. MAMR arrives fall of 2021
how long would it take write 60tb if one fails
All I see is more points of failure
Manufacturers should go for 2 SSDs. Sata big 1 TB for storage & M.2 PCI express 256 GB for OS.
Good luck with a HDD that needs 2 years to be written fully, assuming you write to it nonstop at the maximum speed.
Completely forgot i was subscribed to this. This makes up for it
Lol, this guy is a spazzy nerd. Love it. :D
This might be a dumb question, but why can't we just make the platters bigger?
It doesn't affect that much...
Unless they make really big platters which I think their physical sizes would be a problem tho
@@Talia.777 Wait how? The size is literally determined by how much stuff you can squeeze in on the platters. So instead of making everything smaller just make the platter bigger.
@@akalion213 You're right but then they get bigger and bigger.... I mean in case of the amount of space they'd occupy.... That's problematic i guess..
Awesome video.
IMAGINE LOSING 60 TB OF DATA !!!
thought my playback was set to 4x it wasnt
Meanwhile large capacity SSDs getting cheaper, the mechanical HDDs have always the reliability issues.
Saw this guy and immediately clicked on the video!
3:45: I thought it was that Harry Potter scene with all the banking elfs the first time around.
Sounds like an excited robot voice over from the Family Guy universe of people on the verge of needing to drop a deuce. I wasn't actually looking at the screen while listening to this and when I did I thought it was the guy from The Office...
what about those protein disks or holographic disks
oh wait thats optical media
But will these technologies make hdds resilient to free falls ?
I'll pretend like I understood a word you said but I'll play along
While my day to day storage is on SSDs, I still use HDDs for backups and mass storage.
A 15Tb HDD is still 10 times less expensive than an SSD of equal storage.
And you should never store anything "in the cloud" that you would not want shared with everyone in the world - including your wife, daughter, mother and boss. Because "the cloud" really means, "someone else's server". And you are completely at the mercy of someone else's server security.
There should always be a prominent place for local storage, and local encryption, no matter how connected we become.