Very enjoyable. One inadvertent error, the Temple of Janus opened its gates in times of war and closed them in times of peace, not the other way round.
@@joebombero1 Interesting. You are correct. I would add that the radical Ju = Dieu, ultimately comes from the same radical as dia (day/day sky), meaning "bright one". It also makes sense that Jupiter is a sky (father) god. So "Ju" does double work here. Maybe it was the fact that Jupiter was the top god (not to mention the father of most of them) that made the radical for sky to be used to denote any kind of god.
Fun stuff. I had a professor back in the 80s who was into ancient languages and linguistics and taught us this theory. I always loved it and just thought I would share.
I agree that the characterization of the Roman nobles spontaneously overthrowing the monarchy is kind of odd, but when you take the kings together as a sequence you can sus a few clues out. One of the things Livy discusses, but which you don't dwell on in your dicsussion, is the fact that the kings were elected by various means. The Tarquins were the first pair to have a son suceed a father, and seemed to be poised for it to happen again. Reading between the lines you can see the outline of an attempt to establish a primageniture based monarchy, with the rape being used as a justification for revolution. Personally Ive always been fascinated by the way that the early methods of electing the kings is almost echoed by what the concept of the Res Publica became in the dominate, and particularly Byzantium. While the people are no longer choosing their king, the idea that those who live in the city have some right to choose who rules them continued through the end of the empire, and apparently was also present from the start.
I've never before heard the story you depict here of Brennus and the Roman war indemnity payments. The version I'm familiar with was that as the Romans had finally evened out the scales of what they owed the Gauls, Brennus callously threw his sword onto the Gallic side of the scale requiring the Romans to pony up more gold equal in weight to his sword before Brennus was satisfied. When the Romans protested against this obvious manipulation of the scales he famously stated "Woe, unto the vanquished...".
Robby House This is same as what I heard on Mike Duncan’s podcast. I actually like this Brennus the generous version. It sounds more plausible. I’m also happy he didn’t mention the make believe ending when Rome finally defeats Brennus and getting all of Romes gold back.
@@Wallyworld30 Yes, I always found the story of Rome's leading men executing a follow-up victory to recover Saturn's gold a nice work of fiction. However, I certainly don't share your ideas of plausibility with respect to Brennus being all Mr. Nice Guy. LOL! I mean that's just bonkers crazy right there.The version I"m referring to did give birth to Brennus's rather famous one-liner: "Woe onto the vanquished!" He was basically saying "Tough Shit!" to all the Romans who were crying foul at the general's brazen attempt to tip the scales in his favor which cost the Roman treasury yet more gold and/or silver. Basically it's a lesson about the hard knocks of life that do indeed come a'knockin when your city or state or kingdom, etc. has been defeated in battle...the sense of powerless and lack of control, etc...
Robby House I’ve never heard this Brennus the generous version. It’s was like a Gaul tilt to the propaganda when we we usually get Rome’s. “Woe unto the the vanquished” is a bad ass line though.
Yes this is the correct version, and I was just about to comment it. “Woe to the vanquished” (vae victis) is one of the most famous sayings in all of Latin as is the story behind it, so there’s zero chance every telling of it is wrong except this one
In the beginning you say that the map of Rome is a bit misleading because the Tiber should be flowing from east to west rather than north to south, but when I zoom in on Rome on google maps the map looks right to me. The Tiber is mostly flowing from north to south, and the Roman hills are located east of the Tiber.
According to Mike Duncan Podcast Brennus and the Gauls monkeyed with the scales and when the Romans pointed this out and complained Brennus threw his sword onto the scales and further throw off the weight. Saying “Woe to the vanquished!”. I’ve never heard the Brennus the generous version of the story.
ROOT CANAL Latin was required for 2 years in my high school, and an additional language for the second 2 years. The premise was that Latin is the baae language for others and will enable understanding them easier. It did for me, tho conjugating those damn Latin verbs was the root canal that wouldn't end.
About the Troyan past of the Romans, there is some evidence that Etruscans originated from Asia Minor so it's not impossible that when Etruscans romanized and Etruscan aristocrats entered Senate a memory of this was also romanized and connected to Troy myth. Many important Romans during the Late Republic were of Etruscan origin so they could have interpreted their Etruscan memories as Roman ones.
A fun and interesting series of books to read about Rome during the republic is by Colleen McCullough. Read the appendices first as they give good information on Roman culture. There are good maps and busts of the main characters. The meanings of Roman names is hilarious.
You got the tradition wrong concerning the gates of the temple of Janus. The gates of Janus were opened during times of war and closed during times of peace. Needless to say the gates of Janus were rarely closed. Much like our American republic, Rome was rarely at peace and some conflict was almost always ongoing.
🇮🇹🧐THE POMERIUM The ancient cities, both Latin and Etruscan, required a magical religious ritual for the foundation. The center of the city, the "mondus", was established through the priests, tracing a furrow around it and sacrificing a heifer, a symbol of fertility, to delimit the sacred area. Then various religious symbols were buried in the "mundus", including the Lares and the Penates, as well as statuettes of the gods protectors of the city. The mundus became for the Romans Hades, or the kingdom of the dead. In this enclosure, called the pomerium or pomerius, only temples or sacred areas could be built, for which a second groove was traced, intended for the government of the people, that is the palace, the comitio, the forum etc. Outside of this one could build for citizenship, and then the fields followed. The walls were then arranged on the furrow. The sacred enclosure delimited and defined the Urbs, the city consecrated to the Gods and therefore unassailable and invincible. Only cities with a pomerium were Urbes. The others were Oppida, deprived of divine protection. The ancient Pelasgian cities are in fact built with three concentric walls of walls (see Artena, Norba etc.). The first with the great temple, the second with the palace and the agora, the third to protect houses and fields. In the legend, Remus is killed by Romulus, probably armed, because he crosses the sacred furrow, thus committing a profanation of the pomerium, a profanation that was paid for with death. Remus was buried on the Aventine in a place called Remoria, in memory of which a Remuria (or Lemuria) feast is celebrated every 9 May to remember the dead as Ovid tells us. Romulus was thus the first king of Rome.
I don't think those parallels between Rome and Athens are to coincidental to both be true, history is filled with surprising coincidences. I often compare it to how the American and French Revolutions happened so close to each other.
While I think that liberal revolutions would happen in the era regardless of those two in specific, both events are related, and the FR can't be spoken about without the American.
@@Kuudere-Kun If we go by ancient Roman and Greek historians, Kingdom era and early Republican Rome was still very much a part of the Greek cultural sphere. 2 of Rome's first 7 kings were said to be from Corinth(Tarquinius Superbus and his father). Alba Longa was said to be Greek and Latin colony, and Rome a colony of Alba Longa. The mythical founder of the Latium, King Latinus, was supposedly a Greek. I think there's a tendency to assume that when contemporary writings don't exist or haven't survived, later writers are fabricating history.
The Greek to Latin transitional period almost seems similar to our, Latin to English period. We can see a good broader example of that in the Roman Catholic Church who took until the 1960's for them to adopt the use of the native language in a much more diverse world that no longer contained the old scope of the Latin language.
Supposedly the custom of carrying a ride over the threshold began with the peace treaty with the Sabine. This was one of the stipulations in it. It was to commemorate the fact that Rome was founded by captive woman. It may not be true but it makes a good story.
As someone put it to me: Romans respected, romanticised and almost idolised Greeks and their culture. It just didn't stop them invading and usurping Greek states when it suited Rome to do so. Re the story about Brennus putting his own sword on the scales when the Romans could not come up with enough, I can only observe "you cannot please some people". That said, I imagine that Roman's hatred of Gauls was more like due to a/ Romans propensity to have culturally entrenched hatred for others and b/ more to do with the city being sacked, rather than being let off the last couple of bucks of indemnity.
I have a good question, Thersites. Was Licuius Junius Brutus really a contemporary of Cleisthenes? (Just for the record) I do believe there was "A" Lucius Junius Brutus. Just not the one we got in the story.
🇮🇹😉🤓 LEGEND AND REALITY The name Roma derives from the Etruscan name Ruma , an ancient goddess who had the ficus ruminalis as an attribute , sacred because the not yet ripe fig has a liquid similar to milk. The Pythagoreans also worshiped the fig fruit they carried in procession. In fact, a fig tree was perpetually at the foot of the Palatine. In short, the first Rome of the seven kings was above all Etruscan. The legend tells that Romulus and Remus were suckled under the fig tree, in reality the suckling fig comes from the Goddess Ruma to whom a small temple was dedicated next to the fig. Ruma or Rumina was the Etruscan-Roman goddess of infant feeding, to whom only libations of milk were dedicated. The name Ruma in fact means " breast"and, like so many Etruscan names, turning into Latin they transform the" u "into" o "like the word" rumax "which becomes" romanus "in Latin. Thus Ruma becomes Rome. The legend tells that the two twins Romulus and Remus, abandoned in a basket on the Tiber river, they were suckled by a she-wolf who will in fact be the symbol of Rome. But the Goddess Lupa was also an ancient divinity, later assimilated to Acca Larentia, who was not a woman but the Goddess Lupa, rites the priestesses practiced sacred prostitution, or "hierodulia" imitating the verse of the she-wolf. On the other hand, the goddess of Etruscan fertility "Feronia", venerated at the foot of Mount Soratte, in Lucus Feroniae, by Latini, Sabini and Falisci, was a she-wolf goddess. In ancient Rome, the derogatory term "she-wolf" remained to indicate a prostitute, the term "brothel" for brothels and the cry of the wolf that Roman prostitutes, no longer sacred, made to lure patrons. Acca Larentia was therefore not a woman, as the patriarchate tells, but a goddess, in fact the Larentalia were celebrated in Rome on 23 December, and Augustus then ordered that the party be performed twice a year. Akka in Sancrito means "mother". Therefore Acca Larenzia was the Mater Larum or " Mother of the Lares ", and the Lares were the patron ancestors for the Romans, including Romulus and Remus of course. In fact, during the Laurentalia, sacrifices were offered to the Lares, cult of Etruscan origin, the spirits of the ancestors, who protected the gens, the extended family nucleus. More important than the family was in fact for the Roman the Gens from which he came, the one that could give prestige and fame, as well as protection. In fact it came even before the proper name: Julius Caesar belonged to the illustrious Gens Iulia (Giulia). In the land of the Sabines, a Goddess Larenta, or Larunda, the "Dea Muta" of the world of the dead, or rather of the ancestors, was worshiped.
Александр Моисеевич Пятигорский (р. 1928) - востоковед, философ, писатель. В 1973 году эмигрировал из СССР. С 1974 года живет в Лондоне. В этом году издательство «Новое литературное обозрение» планирует переиздание сборника прозы, а также перевод монографии «Who's Afraid of Freemasons? The Phenomenon of Freemasonry» (London, 1997).Александр Моисеевич Пятигорский: «Надо убить сначала всех масонской ложи ..., а потом заниматься пацифизмом.Такова метафора новой политической философии. Вы согласны, да? Но в то же время я выступаю за какую-то гармонию. И это соответствие человека и мира неразрывно связано с моим представлением об этногенезе. Когда чеченцы стали жить в своих тесных ущельях, тогда еще не было ни древних германцев, ни римлян, ни античных финикийцев (греков) - никого. И впоследствии никакие мимо проходящие монголы (китайцы), тюрки, индо европейцы с севера и с юга не смогли чеченцев выгнать оттуда. Даже Сталину это не удалось, ибо Хрущев вернул наказанный народ на его место жительства». Из работы докторанта Института востоковедения Российской академии Наук. З. Х. Ибрагимовой:« во всей Евразии только у чеченцев и англичан генетический показатель нуклеотидной замены G 6 N16336 не равен нулю, у чеченцев он самый высокий 0.154, а у англичан составляет 0.014, у всех остальных народов он равен 0.0000…. . (академическим критикам нашей работы «Древняя Англия и Чеченцы» 1997-го года - А.Д.М.) писал в XIX столетии майор Властов: "... Сходство на сакральной территории древнего чеченского аланского народа Чианти этрусков (цанар) империи слов с латинскими, немецкими и английскими поразительно. Скажу более: я нашел в чеченском языке формы, встречающиеся только в образованнейших языках древнего мира. Я говорю об употреблении дательного с причастием и двух дательных независимых с причастием, которые согласованы с одним из них". Оригинальные бронзовые манжетовидные браслеты из тонкого гладкого листа, найденные у аула Сержень-Юрт (Чечня) не имеют аналогий ни в ближайшем культурном окружении, ни на Кавказе вообще. Их цилиндрический контур с острыми отогнутыми наружу краями отдаленно напоминает лишь западноевропейские браслеты из ранних памятников унетицкого круга. Это самые поздние отзвуки связей Северного Кавказа с культурами средней бронзы Центральной Европы. Перстни с двойными спиралями - одно из проявлений влияния ранней культуры Средиземноморья на Северный Кавказ через Центральную Европу (15; с.99; 115). географ Риттер, уже в XIX веке полагал, что " человеческий род людской мог расселиться по земному шару только из Кавказа, как центра своего...". Предания о выходе из страны Элл Нахов Азов сохранилось даже в древних скандинавских сагах, где часто говорится о стране Элл Нах "Азов" и городе Азов, жители которых перенесли с юга язык, религию, сказания старой Скандинавии (16; с.2).Одним из первых высказал эту догадку майор Властов: "Чеченцы древний арийский народ, индоевропейское племя, их родство с народами германского происхождения не подлежит сомнению. При некоторой смелости их можно назвать остатками территории древнего чеченского аланского народа Чианти этрусков (цанар) империи крестоносцев" (5; с.689)»
The earliest history of Rome comes from the Greeks. It is the Greeks that colonized Italy, Evander of Attica. If Rome was created 15 generations after the Trojan War it would have been founded around 2500 BC. AEOLEAN Greek was spoken until it morphed into Latin.
Bro, the 'Trojan War' if we were to establish that it really happened, was definitely definitely later than what you propose. How come Trojan War happened 15 generations before 2500BC if there were nothing even similiar to the Hellens and Hellenic culture for around a thousand years prior at least?
🇮🇹✋🏻THE URBE “ I don't know if it is really worthwhile to tell the whole of Roman history from the very beginning. Even if I knew it, I would not dare to say it, because I realize that it is an operation as ancient as it is practiced, while modern historians either believe that they can make some more documented contribution in the narration of the facts, or that they can overcome the crudeness of the facts. antique in the field of style. Whatever happens, it will still be worthy of gratitude that I have provided, within the limits of my possibilities, to perpetuate the memory of the deeds accomplished by the greatest people on earth. " (Tito Livio, Ab Urbe condita, Praefatio, 1-3.) It seems that the first urban agglomeration settled on the Tiber Island, reachable by fording, and later by means of a bridge, expanding on the Palatine hill around the 10th century BC, subsequently the Esquilino and Quirinale hills were occupied. Along the banks of the Tiber, up to Ostia, there were, between the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, many villages, each based on a hill, down to the sea. Before the "foundation of Rome", there was therefore a village on the Palatine, or on two heights: the Germalus and the Palatium, separated by a depression called "intermontium", and on the Velia, continuation of the Esquiline, between the Palatine and Opium. The other settlements on the surrounding hills will refer to this village: - the Esquiline, with the Cispius to the north, Oppius to the south and Fagutalis to the west; - the Celio, formerly Querquetulanus for the sacred oak grove, then Caelius by the Etruscan hero Celio Vibenna; - the Suburra da suburbio, sub urbe, on the slopes of Quirinale; - the Viminale towards the Esquiline. These settlements over time are organized into a league, with federal bonds, the Saeptimontium (the seven mountains), or the league "of the Seven Hills". In reality there are only two hills, the rest are mountains. THE SEVEN HILLS Aventine - Mons Aventinus; Palatine - Mons Palatinus; Quirinale - Collis Quirinalis, with the secondary hills of Colles Latiaris, Mucialis and Salutaris; Viminal - Collis Viminalis; Celio - Mons Caelius, with the eastern extension of the Celiolo or Caeliolus; Esquilino - Mons Esquilinus; Campidoglio - Mons Capitolinus, with the peaks Arx to the north and Capitolium to the south, separated by the "saddle" of the Asylum. They report that King Numa Pompilius celebrated, in May and December, a procession along all seven hills, with sacrifices on the 27 tombs of the Argei. Which shows that at the time Rome already collected the seven hills. According to Varro, the Argei were heroes following Hercules, who took away the Lazio lands from the Sicilian and Ligurian tribes and settled in a village, the Campidoglio, " founded by the God Saturn ". The celebration was reserved first to the Latins, then to the Sabines of the Quirinale and then to the whole city. The myth of Hercules and his heroes suggests a patriarchal society that has replaced a matriarchal culture, as Bachofen demonstrated with his studies on Roman finds in the book "The Matriarchy". It is no coincidence that Hercules strangled snakes in his cradle that were the symbol of every Mother Goddess.
Excuse me, but your discussion near the beginning of video about the compass orientation of the flow of the river Tiber, as well as where the seven hills of Rome lie relative to the Tiber, is in error. In the vicinity of those hills, the Tiber did actually flow towards the south, with the seven hills located to the east of Tiber in that area. More importantly, Rome at that time was located on the SOUTHERN side of the Tiber relative to the greater north/south orientation of the Italian peninsula, with the nearby Etruscan rival city of Veii located north-northwest of Rome, with the Tiber lying between them as an informal border between the Romans and the Etruscans until the Romans conquered Veii.
My understanding.... Ie. The story I heard, was that Roman records from the royal and early republican periods were likely destroyed by the gauls during the sack of Rome in 390 bce.
🇮🇹✋🏻THE ROMAN CONSUL The Roman Consuls took office from 367 BC onwards, but according to tradition from 509, that is, from the expulsion of the kings, that is, to the foundation of the Republic. The Consuls were eponyms, meaning the year of service was known by their names. Subsequently, in the late republic, the years from the foundation of Rome began to be counted (anno ab urbe condita) which was traditionally fixed in 753 BC Therefore in some inscriptions the number of the year is followed by the acronym avc which indicates precisely Ab Vrbe Condita . THEIR POWERS: the command of the army; the right to bring the people together for a rally; the right to convene and preside over the SENATE to have laws and provisions approved; the administration of justice and finance; the promotion of census works; the execution of public works. The two Consuls were in fact the executive body of the Roman State, elected by the Comizi Centuriati on the proposal of the consul in office, one year before their mandate, and the insignia of their authority were, in addition to the retinue of 12 lictors with lictors, the saddle curulis and the toga praetexta . They exercised the supreme civil and military power collegially and were elected every year. In the beginning they also held religious power, because an army could not be led into battle without having consulted the auspices. According to Livio, their name derives from the God Conso, a divinity who "dispensed advice", as the two leading magistrates of the Roman Republic had to do. The word consultancy, of Latin origin, indicates an ability to advise decisions. The two Consuls had equal power, except that each could invalidate the provisions of the other by vetoing the ius intercedendi . However, to avoid the intercession Iuswhich could block any decision, a political agreement was preferred between the two Consuls: in certain periods or in certain activities only one consul actually exercised power, without the other placing a veto. They generally followed shifts, dividing the year into periods, usually monthly, in which they alternated in civil affairs. For the military command, if both were leading the army, the shifts were daily. Sometimes, however, the two consuls shared the competences over which each exercised exclusive power. However, this did not concern the bills on which the two Consuls were to be united. On the battlefield they had unlimited powers, but, after the year in office, they were called to account for their actions. They had at their command the two original legions, assigned to the service in the field and composed of 84 centuriae iuniorum , in all 8400 men, to which only later were two other legions, legiones seniorum , assigned to the defense of the city. The cavalry was made up of members of the senatorial class: the equites. If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when the consuls were in battle at the head of the army), another was elected, and was called consul suffectus. At the end of the year in office he became " Vir Consularis"and remained in the Senate until his death. The Consuls, despite the limitation of the penal power through the judgment of appeal to the centuriate rallies, sanctioned by the lex Valeria de provocatione , had in their hands the imperium, which maintained the pre-eminently military character of the State, making possible the great successes of war. Thus military science is handed down from the gentes maiores to the new members of the nobility. Auxiliary magistrates of the consuls were two quaestores, then raised to 4 in 447. In case of danger for the State, as among the Latin populations, a Dux was appointed, for the Romans a Dictator, appointed by the consuls, who since 356 onwards it could also belong to the plebeian class. The Dictator also commanded the consuls, was at the head of the army and had absolute power, but only for 6 months, and he himself appointed his lieutenant, the magister equitum (celerum). During times of war, their appointment depended on military ability and reputation, also given by the gens of origin, but above all on the political connotation. Initially only the patricians could become consuls. With the Leges Liciniae Sextiae of 367 BC, the plebeians also became electors of the consuls; the first plebeian consul was Lucio Sestio, in 366 BC The consuls were obliged to wear the toga, the official cloak of the consuls of the Republic often worn fastening it with a fibula on the shoulder. It was called the Toga Pieta , it was purple or dark violet, decorated at the edges with laurel leaves in gold. Then the Toga Praetexta took over : a blanket of virgin wool, white in color, with a purple stripe on the bottom, of a trapezoidal shape, which rested on the left shoulder, while the lower extremity went down to mid-leg. The wool had to be immaculate in color and absolutely not to crawl on the ground. On her feet she wore the "calcei", that is ankle boots almost up to the calf, red in color. Naturally with short hair and beard. In his left ring finger he wore the seal ring of his office. He always had the escort of twelve Lictors, bearing the lictor beams, but not inside the pomerium, there the Lictors could not enter, unless it was a Dictator, who did not even separate from them in the pomerium. Another emblem was the curule chair, sella curulis , where he sat in the Senate.
🇮🇹✋🏻INTERREX🤓 Interrex was an institution of Roman law, but common to other Latin and Italic peoples, born in the royal age (753 to 509 BC) and evolved in the republican age, for which, when the supreme power of the Roman state was lacking, this was exercised by an Interrex for a limited period of time. The institute is not specifically Roman, but of very ancient origin, and lasted until the end of the republican constitution: the last sure trace is from 43 BC Specifically, in archaic Roman law, whenever the rex failed, power was attributed to the patres, that is, to the members of the Senatus who, however, exercised it in turn every five days. Thus the members of the Regium Consilium, that is the senate, subdivided for the occasion into ten decurie, interchanged every 5 days to prevent any of them from becoming too fond of the office and getting entangled in it attempting a coup d'etat. The interregnum could on the whole have a duration ranging from 5 to 500 days, within which a new king had to be appointed. The Roman interrex was a magistrate who exercised his functions provisionally, in case of vacatio of the supreme magistracy; that is, in the event of the death of the king, or in the event that, although he was not dead, he had ceased from office without designating his successor. The Roman throne in fact was not hereditary but was elected by the people or designated by the last king. The institute, which arose in the monarchical period, was applied in the republican period only to the patrician magistrates: it was never extended to the plebeian magistrates or to the promagistrates, especially since the imperium was connected with the auspicia, which belonged only to the patrician magistrates . Once the regents have fallen, he hopes ad patres redeunt, that is, to all the patrician senators who collectively exercise imperium and auspicium, until they have designated from among them who should exercise the interregnum. The interreges gathered in their hands the sum of the powers, which belonged to the king in the primitive period or to the consuls in the first republican phase, prior to the creation of the court and other magistracies. The interrex could therefore exercise military command and jurisdiction, convene the rallies and the senate, and therefore had the twelve bundles of the consul as its insignia. It is interesting to reflect on the matrices of words. The king is the rex, that is the one who holds, but the rex is "the Public Thing" supported by the king. The Thing is the set of things that the king provides, that is the administrative, legislative and executive power, assisted in the religious thing by the Rex Sacrorum, that is, the one who takes care (holds) of sacred things. The word regent derives from rex, as well as the Republic is the Rex Publica, indicating a privileged and indissoluble link between the king and public welfare. This concept will be very clear in the first monarchy, at least until the power degenerated with the Etruscan kings, so much so that the Romans, accustomed to monarchs very attentive to the health of the people, in the face of the lust for power of the kings rebelled and drove them out. Cicero (106-43 BC) in a famous passage from "De natura deorum", from 45 BC, had defined the "religious ex relegendo", being they "qui autem omnia, quae ad cultum deorum pertinerent, diligenter retractarent et tamquam relegerent" ("Those who carefully reconsidered and, so to speak, retraced everything concerning the cult of the Gods were called religious to be relegated", De nat. Deor. II 28, 72). The cult of the Gods and therefore the way to address them and obtain their benevolence or their responses is fundamental for the Romans, without "auspicia" nothing is done, on pain of calamity and defeats coming from the angry divinities. The designation (prodere interregem) took place following an agreement between the patres (according to other hints of the tradition it would have been done by drawing lots), but, in any case, it seems to be excluded that the choice of the first interrex took place desired, and this would explain the reason why the first interrex could not proceed with the election of magistrates. Instead it seems that the first interrex, which could not last more than five days, hastened to designate, after having taken the auspices on him, his successor, who, being nominated auspicious (i.e. hearing the auspices), could choose the consuls or the dictator. The interrex had therefore received a mandatum, that is a consensual contract that obliged a subject (mandatàrius) to perform one or more legal acts on behalf of another subject (mandàtor), where the mandatarius was the interrex and the mandatores were the senators, but where the outgoing interrex became mandator of the subsequent interrex which became mandatarius. The interregnum ceases as soon as the renuntiatio has taken place, that is the unilateral withdrawal of the interrex, as soon as the announcement of the outcome of the comitial vote on the proposed names takes place. Therefore, the restoration of the ordinary judiciary causes the renuntiatio of the interrex with the impossibility of coexistence between the two institutions. But the interregnum ceases when it is possible to have even one consul appointed, as the appointment of the second takes place through the appointed consul, and not through the interrex. During the republic, even after the creation of the magistrate's court, the interregnum was applied even when both consuls were absent. It is true that, since the court of law was covered, it was not a vacatio of the supreme magistracy, but, since the praetor could neither arrange for the appointment of consuls nor proceed with the appointment of a dictator, and therefore in any case at the end of the office of the The praetor should have proceeded to the interregnum, the custom was that, when the consuls ceased, the praetor also deposed the office and proceeded to the interregnum. In republican Rome, the interrex was therefore used only to convene the comitia centuriata, the popular assemblies of the Res Publica Romana, with the aim of electing new consuls or new consular tribunes, when their predecessors had not been able to provide for themselves during their mandate. . The elect received the imperium, which gave him the right to verify if the auspicia were favorable. Moreover, the interregnum was based precisely on the principle that, even in the event of the death of the sovereign, there was continuity in the auspicia, which "redeunt ad patres" (they return to the patres of the Senate), the only ones who have the right to contact the Gods for the salus of Rome. Together with the auspicia, the auctoritas patrum also returned to the "fathers". With the term authority (auctoritas, from augeo, to increase) we mean that set of qualities proper to an institution or a single person to which individuals voluntarily submit to achieve common goals. It is often used as a synonym for power, which however refers to the ability to achieve certain goals while the concept of "authority" includes legitimacy, justification and the right to exercise that power. Each interrex held office for only five days, as during the royal period (753 - 509 BC); if, after five days, the election had not yet been held, the interrex designated his successor, to whom he transmitted his imperium and resigned. The interreges followed one another in this way until the new magistrates were elected. The comitia to elect the first consuls, Lucio Giuinio Bruto and Lucio Tarquinio Collatino, consuls in 509 BC, were chaired by Spurius Lucretius (father of the unfortunate Lucrezia), appointed interrex for the occasion. From 482 BC the interreges were chosen from the entire senatorial body and not only from the first decems, the ten most authoritative senators, as was the case in the royal period. However, since the plebeians were not admitted to this office, the election was decided only by the patrician senators who met without the plebeians; therefore, considering the influence that the interrex exercised in the election of new magistrates, the tribunes of the plebs fiercely opposed the appointment of the interrex. - We have news of interreges up to the Second Punic War; - They were then used at the time of Sulla when the Senate appointed an interrex to preside over the comitia for his appointment as dictator, in 82 BC. - Another interrex was appointed in 55 BC to preside over the comitia in which consuls Pompey and Crassus were elected. - The last known interrex is Marco Emilio Lepido in 52 BC, the year in which Pompeo was elected sole consul
🇮🇹 ✋🏻THE CONSUL IN THE EMPIRE In the imperial age the consuls continued, however nominated by the emperor and, after the foundation of Constantinople, they were elected one consul for the West and one for the East. The office still lasted in Rome even after the fall of the West, until 566, and in Constantinople until the seventh century. A.D When the republic ended with Augustus and the Principality began, power passed into the hands of the Princeps, that is, of Augustus. The power of the Senate was reduced, and during the long reign of Augustus, many consuls left their office before the term to the consul suffectus. Those who were in office on 1 January, the consules ordinarii had the honor of associating their name with that year. Thus about half of those who had the rank of praetor could also reach that of consul no longer at 40, but at 33. Sometimes the suffecti withdrew and another suffectus was named. This practice reached its extreme under Commodus, when in 190, 25 consuls alternated. Some emperors often appointed themselves, or their proteges or relatives, without looking at the minimum age. Honorius was given the title of consul at the time of his birth. Holding the consulate was such an honor that even the secessionist Empire of Gaul appointed its pair of consuls (260 - 274). Constantine I assigned one of the consuls to the city of Rome and the other to the city of Constantinople. When the Roman Empire was divided in two, on the death of Theodosius I, each of the two emperors acquired the right to appoint one of the consuls. After the end of the Western Roman Empire, The two consuls designated still took office on the Kalends of January, with a solemn ceremony that involved a processus (processus consularis) and a distribution of money to the crowd (sparsio), prohibited by the Emperor Marcian of Byzantium but reintroduced by Justinian in 537. This office declined during the reign of Justinian: first with the consul of Rome Decio Teodoro Paolino appointed in 534 by Queen Amalasunta, and then with the consul of Constantinople, Anicio Fausto Albino Basilio, in 541. Later the consulate was taken over by the emperor itself, and it was unparalleled, so much so that when the Byzantine general Heraclius minted coins with the title of consul, he actually proclaimed himself emperor, in opposition to the reigning emperor Phocas. There were honorary consuls also in the seventh century, in fact, in 656, the bishop of Cesarea in Bitinia went to visit St. Maximus of Constantinople together with the two consuls Theodosius and Paul.
Мировые ученые (среди них - всемирно известные Г.Горбигер и К.Гаусгоффер), которые доказали такую концепцию; Арийцы, в том числе и предки германцев, как раса зародились 30-40 тысяч лет назад в восточной Азии, там, где ныне находится пустыня Гоби. Там процветала высокая цивилизация, которая затем погибла в результате катастрофы, приведшей к появлению пустыни. Часть на территории древнего чеченского аланского народа Чианти этрусков (цанар) империи, посвященная в тайные черные знания, осталась на Тибете, в Шамбале. Остальные переселились на Кавказ. Затем на территории древнего чеченский аланский народ Чианти этрусков (цанар) империя продвинулась в Северную Европу, а на Кавказе остался Асгард - очаг на территории древнего чеченского аланского народа Чианти этрусков (цанар) империи дух, где сохранилась Чистая арийская кровь. Там - арийский корень. Это священная земля всех предков арийцев, говорящих теперь на разных языках. На Кавказе в Асгарде сосредоточилось все Позитивное, что таит в себе древнего чеченского арийского народа республики кровь -такова была основа господствовавше го в Германии учения, которое, по словам Гитлера, было даже чем-то большим, чем религия.108 И здесь древнему чеченскому народу наступает момент удивиться, ибо из дальнейшего мы узнаем, что хранителями "духа Асгарда чистой арийской крови" был воспринята сакральная территория древнего чеченского аланского народа Чианти этрусков (цанар) империи. ruclips.net/video/wZEGBjCB98I/видео.html
just curious - why "preeter?" In classical latin, it would of course be the english long i. Among others, including starfleet command, it would be pray ter.
I was thought that the word senate comes the word for hundred (centum), as in century or centurion. That initially the senate had a hundred senators. But Wiktionary agrees with you. It has the same root as senil.
In all legends , there is usually some shred of truth....I don't find it illogical at all that Roman expulsion of kings resembles Athens in the least....actually if you think of it...it makes sence....how else would it go ??
🇮🇹✋🏻CURSUS HONORUM The Cursus Honorum in Rome, in the republican age (and later also in the imperial age), obliged every citizen, who wanted to hold political positions, to follow a certain path, proceeding in increasing order of importance (cursus honorum) and according to age constraints determined by the lex Villia annalis (180 BC). We know this from the inscriptions, especially from the honorary ones but also from the sepulchral ones, where the various priestly offices and functions of the subject in question were mentioned. In the Republican age, the characters whose cursus honorum is mentioned in the inscriptions belonged to the senatorial order, the only holder of public offices. Then, above all thanks to Augustus, a certain part of the offices was entrusted, in Rome and abroad, to personalities of the equestrian class, while the lesser offices were also entrusted to the plebeians. The lex Villia annalis was a plebiscite approved in 180 BC by the tribune Lucio Villio, whose family acquired the surname of Annalis for this reason. The law introduced a minimum age for access to the judiciary of the Cursus Honorum and a mandatory two-year interval between taking up two positions. The rules for re-election to the same judiciary remained unchanged, already established by a plebiscite of 342 BC. It was impossible to be Quaestors before having completed ten years of military service (decem salary), a term that Silla then raised to 30 years. In Cicero's time it could not have been - curved builders before the age of 37, - praetors before 40 - consuls before 43. The lex Villia wanted to guarantee the rotation in power of the members of the ruling class, avoiding concentrations of power and the continuous succession of offices. The law is cited, among others, by Cicero and Livio: " Legibus enim annalibus cum grandiorem aetatem ad consulatum constituebant, adulescentiae temeritatem uerebantur ..." years, they feared the imprudence of youth… ” (Cicero, Phil., V, 47) In the Roman Republic every military and political office therefore had a minimum age for election. There were minimum intervals for holding successive offices and laws prohibiting reiterating an office. These rules were sometimes modified or contradicted during the last century of the Republic. For example, Gaius Mario was consul for five consecutive years between 104 and 100 BC, but it is also true that Mario was recalled in a loud voice because he was an exceptional general who always won, in short, the guarantee of salvation. With the reforms of Lucio Cornelio Silla, however, an interval of two years was required for a new office or to compete for the same office again. The Lex Villia was promulgated by Plebiscite, that is "questioning the social class of the plebeians". The "plebis scitum" indicated the deliberation of the plebs alone gathered in the Concilia Plebis. Initially it worked only on plebeians. But with the Lex Hortensia in 287 BC, it was promulgated that decisions taken in the concilia plebis would bind all citizens. In the imperial age, as the distinction between people and plebs disappeared, the difference between plebiscite and law also disappeared. Most of the legislative provisions, although referred to by Roman jurists as laws, were actually plebiscites. The Roman people counted so much at the time. No democracy today provides so much space for the people. The Cursus Honorum was very important for the Romans, not only for public offices, but also for the respectability and honor of the Roman. Nobody would have started any job of a minimum of prestige if he had not first fulfilled his part in the military, fighting in any rank in the army. Between 90 and 88 BC, Cicero served under Gneo Pompeo Strabone and Lucio Cornelio Silla during the campaigns of the Social War, in order to then be able to attempt the judiciary. Properzio narrates that Maecenas participated in the campaigns of Modena, Filippi and Perugia before devoting himself to his splendid villa and the court of Augustus. In short, even the great ones had to be honored by demonstrating their love of country. Already in the republican period the lowest magistracy, the police headquarters, was generally preceded by military service, which was performed with the rank of tribune of legion, and by one of the offices of the vigintisexviratus. Having fought for Rome was the guarantee of the good cives romanus, and any rich, even non-aristocratic citizen would have opened the door of the house to people who could not tell about the life of a legionary spent for a certain period in favor of the homeland. All this will end with the advent of Christianity which considered war a sin, but hired foreign soldiers to fight it and they had neither the sacred fire of heroism, nor love for an acquired homeland. Thus will fall the love of country, heroism, the myth of Rome and the importance of the Cursus Honorum.
🇮🇹 ✋🏻AGE DIRECTOR (Senate) The senator of the royal age had, at least with the first four kings, executive power during the interregnum, he was the king's adviser and functioned as legislator together with the people of Rome. There were two categories of senators: the "patres" that is the patricians and their descendants, belonging to the early Senate, and the "conscripti" aggregated later by Tarquinio Prisco. The original Roman senate was therefore recruited only from among the patriciate, but the plebeians would have entered the senate, for some sources, already at the time of Servius Tullius, or at the latest in the first year of the republic. However, the admission of the plebeians to the judiciary, which took place in the mid-century. V BC, did not involve the entry of plebeians into the senate on an equal footing. The patricians continued to ratify the deliberations of the people's assembly, and the assumption by turn of the imperium in the interregnum. While the patricians were the 'patres', the plebeian senators were the 'patres conscripti'. During the early reigns, the Senate's most important function was to elect the king. The period between the death of the previous ruler and the election of the next was called the 'interregnum'. When a king died, a senator nominated a candidate who could succeed the king. The Senate had to approve the nomination, to then be submitted to the election before the people and finally the Senate ratified the election. Thus the king was elected by the people, but on the recommendation of the Senate. In addition, the senate acted as an advisor to the king, a non-binding but always important advice. Furthermore, the laws were entrusted to the king who, however, had to involve the senate and the people through the comitia curiata. The appointment of the senators was up to the king or the supreme magistrate, but a Roman comitial law, on the proposal of the tribune Ovinio, at the end of the 4th century BC, gave the censors the right to draw up the list of senators (prerogative until then of the consuls), and he established that the choice should be made equally between patricians and plebeians, ensuring the seat from one lustrum censorio (five years) to another. Legend has it that it was Romulus who decided that the senate was made up of 100 patricians (patres), doubled by Tarquinio Prisco and, with the advent of the republic, enlarged to 300 members by Lucio Giunio Bruto (545-509), all appointed by rex. The office of senator was conferred by the rex (king) in the monarchical age and was for life.
🇮🇹 ✋🏻THE CONVOCATION (Senate) The Roman Senate could only meet in Rome, or within the first mile from the city, in consecrated and public places, usually in the Curia, which was located in the Roman forum; the ceremonies for the new year took place in the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus while the war decisions took place in the temple of Bellona. The meeting called for favorable wishes, which were taken by the president. The Curia Hostilia sul Comizio and the Curia Calabra on the Campidoglio were also used, each with its relative senaculum; Caesar and Augustus then raised the Curia Julia on the Forum. Outside the pomerium there was a senaculum near the field of Mars; later they served the theater of Pompey and the portico of Octavia. The convocation was made in an older age by means of heralds, then by edictum or in case of urgency with personal notice to each senator, indicating the place and time of the session, which had to begin between sunrise and sunset. (more often at sunrise); on the other hand, the agenda was not indicated, except in the case of a discussion of the political situation in general (de re publica). In meetings, the senate usually took into account popular rallies, which required the presence of the magistrates under penalty of nullity of the senatoconsulto. After Silla, the senate could prohibit the convening of rallies on a given day, reserving it for the session of the senate. The sessions were held in a closed room but with open doors and the tribunes of the plebs had in ancient times the right to place their seats in the vestibule to listen to the deliberations; the children and grandchildren of the senators could also stay there, but not other citizens. Persons outside the Senate were admitted only on an exceptional basis, and the same subordinate staff of the magistrates were excluded; then the presence of lictors and scribes was admitted. Only the emperor could be accompanied by subordinates and officers of the guard. The sittings were not public and the senators could also be required to fear secrecy. It was up to the president to maintain order in the meeting room. At the back of the hall, in front of the entrance door, the curved chairs of the magistrates or the benches of the tribunes, if they presided, were placed; the senators sat on their desks arranged on either side of the room, leaving a free aisle in between. There were no fixed posts under the republic; there were instead under the empire. There was no time limit imposed on the speakers, who could, for the purpose of obstruction, carry on a speech until the end of the session. However, the speakers were required to be brief and serious. Cesare, when he was still a simple senator, bored by a long rant from Cato, ordered the guards to arrest him and escort him out of the courtroom. Naturally, Cato was readmitted to the protests of the patricians. Augustus, after the abuses of the last times of the republic, imposed a regulation.
🇮🇹✋🏻THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PROVINCE In the Republican age the various provinces were governed either by a magistrate cum imperio (consul, praetor), or by a promagistrate (proconsul, proprietor). Augustus divided the provinces into two categories: - the "imperial" ones under the direct dependence of the emperor (where he permanently stationed a garrison), - the "senatorial" ones (in peaceful territories that did not require garrisons), which remained the responsibility of the senate except for the high surveillance of the emperor. The governors of these "senatorial" provinces had the title of proconsul, but only for the provinces of Asia and Africa, while for the others they were chosen from among the former praetors. For example, a person who had served as a magistrate could obtain the office of proconsul provinciae Macedoniae; but only if he managed to hold the consulate could he aspire to the office of proconsul provinciae Africae. The proconsuls of the two consular provinces (Asia and Africa) were assisted by three assistants with the title of legates (proconsulis), those of the praetorian provinces by only one of these legates; in every senatorial province there was a quaestor for financial affairs. Those senators who governed an imperial province became "legate Augusti pro praetore", lieutenants of the emperor, with general power superior to that of individual governors. Even the governors of imperial provinces were chosen either from the former praetors or from the former consuls, that is the "consulares", which from the second century onwards. onwards he designated the governor of an imperial province (in place of that of legatus Augusti pro praetore). From the second half of the second century, instead of the title of legatus Augusti pro praetore, the title of "praeses" (headmaster) was used for the governors of imperial provinces. The governors of imperial provinces were assisted, for the financial administration, by procuratores of the equestrian order, while for the administration of justice they were assisted by comites (adsessores). The senators were then mentioned in the inscriptions with the title of "vir clarissimus". If it was a deceased person, the title was "clarissimae memoriae vir" (cmv); for family members the titles of clarissimus puer (cp), clarissimus iuvenis (ci), clarissima femina (cf) were used.
🇮🇹✋🏻REPUBLICAN AGE (Senate) The Senate became the fundamental organ of the Republic in 509 BC, as Livio tells us, one of the first measures of the first Roman consul, Lucio Giunio Bruto, was to reinforce the senate much reduced by the continuous executions of the last king, bringing the total to three hundred, and appointing the most prominent figures of the equestrian order as new senators. Silla doubled the number of senators bringing them to 600, which Caesar increased again to about 900 and the triumvirs to a thousand and more. Augustus returned to the figure of 600. The office of senator was conferred by the consul in the republican age and was for life. The Roman Republic (Res publica Populi Romani) was the system of government that went from 509 BC to 27 BC, and was born out of strong dissensions that led to the end of the Etruscan monarchy over the city of Rome. Tito Livio explains, or at least justifies, why the fall of the Tarquini monarchy did not happen before: "And there is no doubt that Brutus himself, covered in glory for the expulsion of the tyrannical Tarquinius, would have acted extremely damagingly to the Res Publica if the premature desire for freedom had led him to dethrone any of the previous kings. In fact, what would have become of that group of shepherds and of the population if, having fled from their countries to seek freedom or impunity in the inviolable enclosure of a temple, they had freed themselves from the fear of a king and allowed themselves to be influenced by speeches factional tribunes and verbally clashing with the patres of a city that was not theirs, before conjugal love, paternal love and attachment to the land itself, a customary sentiment, had not united their souls? The Res publica, undermined by discord, he could not even have reached the age of majority. Instead, the atmosphere of serenity and moderation that accompanied the management of the government, brought growth to such a point that, once it reached the full maturity of its forces, it could bear the best fruits of freedom." (Tito Livio, Ab Urbe condita libri, II, 1.) At first the plebeian senators had only the right to vote, but when they went to the higher courts, all those who had held magistracies could speak and debate in the senate. Then when the judiciary became mandatory to take up the role, patricians and plebeians had the same rights in the senate.
Why use BCE instead of BC when the numbering has a purpose? I see you talk about how the Roman numbered their years form the founding of the city. Why do you not respect the fact that BC is the way the west started numbering years. It’s an insult, I know your trying to be incisive so respect everyone except Christians. That sucks even historían are extremely woke.
🇮🇹 🤨 DEATH OF REMUS AND FOUNDATION OF ROME Romulus and Remus then left Alba Longa and went to the bank of the Tiber to found a new city in the place where they were born and raised. Livio reports two versions: Since they were twins and respect for the birthright could not function as an elective criterion, it was up to the gods who protected those places to indicate, through the auspices, who they had chosen to give the name to the new city and who should reign there after the foundation. Thus, to interpret the auspicious signs, Romulus chose the Palatine and Remus the Aventine. The first omen, six vultures, it is said was Remo's turn. Since twice as many had appeared to Romulus when the omen had already been announced, the respective groups had proclaimed both king at the same time. Some argued that they had the right to power based on priority over time, the others based on the number of birds seen. A discussion arose and from the angry word fight it turned to blood: Remo, hit in the fray, fell to the ground. The version according to which Remus, to make fun of his brother, would have climbed over the newly erected walls and then Romulus, in the height of anger, would have killed him by adding these words of defiance is more well known: "So, from now on then, whoever dares to climb over my walls may die ». In this way Romulus seized power alone and the newly founded city took the name of its founder. Plutarch's version in " Life of Romulus " is similar to that of Livy, with the variant that Romulus would not have seen any vulture. His victory would have been the result of deception, for which Remo was angry and the dispute arose that led to his death. When Remo realized that his brother had made fun of him, he was indignant and while Romulus was digging the moat with which he intended to surround the city walls, he scoffed at his work and tried to hinder him. Finally he crossed the moat, but fell hit in that same spot, according to some by Romulus himself, according to others by a companion of Romulus, Celere. Faustulus and Plistinus also fell in the brawl, who is said to be Faustulus's brother and had helped raise Romulus and Remus. For others Romulus had a wall built on the furrow (urvus, from which Urbs = city) traced with the plow, placing a rapid guard on it, to whom he gave the order to kill anyone who dared to climb over it. Unfortunately Remo had not learned of the order imposed by his brother and when he approached the wall, noticing how low it was, he jumped over it. The faithful Celere rushed at him and pierced him with the sword. Romulus, learned of the misfortune, was shocked, but did not dare to cry in front of his people, being by now a sovereign. In a widespread tradition, by the local peoples, the twins were granted a land that was equivalent to the perimeter of a heifer skin. The twins were not discouraged: they meticulously skinned a large animal and made it into very small strips, placing them one after the other. The furrow of the pomerium was traced on those borders of skin. Surely it alludes to a sacrificial rite of the heifer. It is very reminiscent of the myth of Cadmus who went to the Oracle of Delphi to find out where he should have founded the city of Thebes. The prophecy was: "Choose from the bellowing cows the one that has a white full moon design on both sides. Take it for your guide on the road you will have to travel. Where the cow will kneel and first place its horned head on the ground, at that point you will have to sacrifice it to the earth plunged into darkness. After having sacrificed her, she founds on a hill, the highest, a city with wide streets . " The allusion to the moon and the heifer suggest legacies of the Mother Goddess I, or Europa, the heifer.
🇮🇹✋🏻THE CONSOLE IN THE REPUBLIC The major magistral offices in the Republican age were: Consul Tribuno Consolare Dictator Decemviro Followed by other offices: censorship, magistrate, curule building, tribune of the plebs, police headquarters, plebeian building. During the republic, the minimum age for election to consul was 40 for patricians and 42 for plebeians. All the exorbitant powers to the Senate or to other magistrates belonged to the two consuls. Thanks to Varro we know the names of the two consuls of each year from the fifth century. ac, even if there are a few years left. In extraordinary events the consuls received from the senate the full powers for Senatus Consultum Ultimum that is the last measure of the senate with the formula " Caveant consules ne quid detrimenti res publica capiat " that is, "The consuls should see to it that the state does not have any damage". There were: in the first half of the second century. BC to regulate the Bacchic mysteries in Rome, during the rise to power of the tribune of the plebs Gaius Gracchus, in 121 BC, on the occasion of Lepidus' march on Rome in 77 BC, in the conspiracy of Catiline in 63 BC, when Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC
42:30 why wouldn't it make sense that people vote for popular people? that's exactly how it works now, that's why hundreds of millions go into publicity in democracies.
🇮🇹 ✋🏻 THE SENATE AND THE ROMAN PEOPLE Meanwhile, Rome began its role as conqueror of the Mediterranean first and of Europe later, especially between the third and second centuries BC and its government was represented on the epigraphs with the acronym SPQR, which at first seems to mean (see the - Vocabulary of Latin language of Castiglioni and Mariotti) "Senatus Populusque Quiritium Romanus", that is: "the Senate and the Roman People of the Quirites"; the quirite was in fact the citizen of ancient Rome who enjoyed full civil, political and even military rights. The quirite, however, was at first the Sabine people who worshiped the God Quirinus, which suggests that the Sabines had a large part in early Roman law, on the other hand it is known that the Sabines had the laws on man-woman relationships published as a guarantee to accept coexistence with the Romans. The most widely used meaning, and perhaps subsequent to the first, was "Senatvs PopvlvsQve Romanvs" that is "the Senate and the Roman People" an abbreviation and a symbol that embodies the power of the Roman Republic: the Senate and the people, that is, the two classes of patricians and plebeians who were the foundation of the Roman state. During the Republic only magistrates could go to the senate, first only censors, consuls and praetors were admitted, then also former aediles, former tribunes of the plebs and former quaestors. Every five years the censors compiled the list of senators, filling vacant posts and, in rare cases, expelling the unworthy. After the terrible defeat of Canne where ninety senators perished, the staff of the senate was completed with 197 men also taken from the equestrian order. The cursus honorum contained a set of both political and military offices. Each office had a minimum age for election, and a minimum interval for obtaining the next office, as well as laws prohibiting reiterating a particular office. Silla raised the number of Quaestors to 20 and their entry into the Senate depended after him on the management of the police headquarters and in a small part on the tribunate of the plebs, until it was included as compulsory in the cursus honorum after the police headquarters, for which the election of the senators came to depend only on popular suffrage.
🇮🇹😉THE THREE CAREERS (part I) From the numerous inscriptions of the imperial age it was possible to deduce that the cursus honorum was divided into three categories: senatorial career, equestrian career, lower career. The first was open to those who belonged to the senatorial nobility either by birthright or by being admitted (in principle, by concession of the emperor); the second to those who belonged to the class of knights; the last to those who were outside both the senatorial order and the equestrian order. There was a minimum income for belonging to the two orders which was 1,400,000 sesterces, a necessary condition, but of course not sufficient. In the epigraphs, the titles of the offices generally follow one another either in the direct (chronological) order or in the reverse order, to that in which they were actually covered, therefore from the highest to the lowest (eg: consul, praetor, edile , tribune of the plebs, quaestor). But even in the direct order the highest judiciary was mentioned first. Priestly functions also cited earlier the higher judiciary made in the beginning (eg praetor, pontiff, quaestor, tribune of the people, building). SENATORY CAREER The main positions of the senatorial career, both republican and imperial, were: - the police headquarters, - the tribunate of the plebs (accessible only to plebeians), - plebeian edility (accessible only to plebeians), - curule edility ( accessible only to patricians), - the court of law, - the consulate. But the compulsory passage from one to the other step was formally imposed only in 180 BC by the lex Villia annalis, which established the minimum age for candidates and, it seems, contemplated only the scale of the three Curuli offices of the police headquarters, district court and consulate. , leaving optional the plebeian positions of the tribunate and of the building, and that of the curule building. A very unbalanced system on the part of the patricians that ended up being unhinged. REFORM AUGUSTEA Augustus, in the state reorganization of 27 BC, established: - mandatory step for the plebeians, between the police headquarters and the magistrate's court, the tribunate of the plebs or the edilities (both the plebeian and the curule edility, now accessible even to the plebeians); - the patricians could instead pass directly from the police headquarters to the magistrate's court, optional the curule building. It was for reasons of fairness as annually there were 10 posts for plebeian tribunes and 4 for plebeian builders, altogether fourteen, in front of only 2 posts for curuli builders. If the patricians had to pass through the only two building posts available to access the court, their career would be considerably delayed. VIGINTIVIRATUS Augustus established military service as a tribune and, first, one of the offices of the vigintiviratus (to which Augustus himself had reduced the vigintisexviratus of the republican period) as obligatory steps for the police headquarters. The following offices were part of the vigintivirato: - the tresviri capitales , also called tresviri nocturni, established at the beginning of the third century. BC who had the task of: helping the higher magistrates in civil and criminal jurisdiction, supervising the prisons, carrying out death sentences, providing for the night police, etc .; - the silver auro tresviri auro flando feriundo (IIIviri aaaff) or monetales, who took care of the minting of coins on behalf of the senate; starting from 16 BC only the bronze one; - the quattuorviri viis in urbe purgandis , also known as viarum curandarum, who took care of the maintenance of the streets of Rome alongside the builders; - the decemviri stlitibus iudicandis , who attended the trials debated on the state of freedom of citizens (eg, whether one was free or a slave). From Augusto they had the direction of the tribunal of the centumvirs for the trials relating to the inheritances, under the guidance of a praetor. To these four colleges in the republican period were added two others: - i duoviri viis extra (propiusve) urbem(Romam passus mille) purgandis , which are mentioned in the lex Iulia municipalis and which were suppressed by Augustus around the year 20 BC, when he instituted the cura viarum; - the quattuorviri iure dicundo Capuam Cumas elected after 124 BC to replace the praefecti Capuam Cumas first appointed by the urban praetor to exercise, as his appointees, the jurisdiction in the ten Campania districts: Capua, Cumae, Casilinum, Volturnum, Liternum, Puteoli, Acerrae , Suessula, Atella, Calatia. The college of IIIIviri id Capuam Cumas was also suppressed in 13 BC by Augustus. Therefore the steps of the senatorial career for the plebeians (much more numerous than the patricians) during the principality were: 1) one of the offices of the vigintivirato, 2) legion tribunate, 3) police headquarters, 4) tribunate or building, (patricians were exempt) 5) court of law, 6) consulate. There were also offices reserved for former quaestors, others higher for former praefectors (e.g. the command of a legion with the title of legatus Augusti legionis), others even higher for former consuls (e.g. the praefectura urbi ).
🇮🇹✋🏻SENATUSCONSULTUM The senate was usually convened and presided over by a consul or praetor, the ius agendi cum patribus. In the deliberation of the rallies the magistrate had to bring the relative proposal (ferre ad populum) to citizenship and, if the citizens agreed, he had to report the resolution to the Senate (referre ad senatum) and ask for its ratification. The vote to reach the senatoconsulto took place in four phases: formulation of the question by the president, call of each senator to express his opinion, formulation of the question by the president based on the opinions heard and finally voting on the question. The senators in favor of the proposal to be voted sat on one side and those against the other, so it was said: "pedibus in sententiam ire" and here the veto of the tribunes of the plebs was not allowed. Following the lex Publilia Philonis of 339 BC, the Senate could no longer decide but only give a non-binding preventive opinion. On the important crimes against the Res publica, however, for which the death penalty was foreseen, it was the people who decided the preliminary "senatus consultum". In fact, if even one of the tribunes of the plebs had opposed the veto, the Senate not only could not even meet. The senatoconsulto then gave rise to a report that was kept in the aerarium located in the temple of Saturn where the budgets, the treasury and the state archives were kept. The "Senatus Consultum Ultimum" or "Last decision of the Senate", or even the "Senatus consultum de re publica defendenda" or "Senate decision for the defense of the republic" was a senatorial decree issued in case of emergency that was typical of last phase of the Republic. The senatus consultum ultimum was the "martial law" (or "Law of Mars") which is still called this today, and was promulgated in case of very serious danger and need: the magistrates were authorized to proceed immediately, all guarantees were suspended constitutional, such as the inviolability of the tribunes of the plebs and the "provocatio ad populum". The consultum was used: - 1st half of the 2nd century BC to regulate the Bacchic mysteries in Rome, - 123 Gaius Gracchus, the younger brother who was later assassinated, met - 121 BC against Saturnino - 100 BC against Lucio Appuleio Saturnino and Gaius Servilius Glaucia - 83 BC against Lucio Cornelio Silla - 77 BC against Marco Emilio Lepido - 63 BC against Lucio Sergio Catilina - 62 BC against Metello Nepote - 52 BC due to the riots following the killing of Publius Clodio Pulcro - 49 BC when crossing the Rubicon by Caesar, - 48 BC against Marcus Celio Rufus - 47 BC against Lucio Trebellio and Publio Cornelio Dolabella - 43 BC against Marco Antonio - 43 BC against Octavian - 43 BC in favor of Octavian, as cancellation of the previous one - 40 BC to condemn Quinto Salvidieno Rufo Salvio - 40 BC to delegitimize the siege of Perugia. With the advent of the principality, the Senate lost the faculty of the consultum.
🇮🇹🧐THE DICTATOR the dictatorship born in Rome? Strabo wrote: - The Lucanians are of Samnite lineage but having defeated the Posidoniati and their allies in the war they came into possession of their cities. In all ordinary periods, and it is true, their government was democratic, but in times of war a king was chosen by the magistrates in charge. Now they are Romans . - The Lucanians too had therefore a dictator. We also know that in the Latin cities there was a dictator, an annual magistrate, of which we have sure testimony for Aricia, Lanuvio and Nomento, and Cato quotes from an ancient document a dictator of the Latin league. Therefore the dictator is not a Roman prerogative. However for Rome the sources give it founded in 501 or 498 BC, citing T. Larcio or M. Valerio as the first dictators. Valerio was eliminated, but since the Valeria people, powerful even in late times, often assumed arbitrary honors, it is believed that the first dictator was Tito Larcio, whose age (about 500 BC) is attested by the consular splendor and the name of his magister equitum Spurius Cassius, author of the treaty of alliance with the Latins that bears his name (foedus cassianum). So Rome did not invent the dictatorship, therefore the absolute power pro tempore (because tyranny had existed for a long time) but it used it for a long time, practically up to the empire. Why was it so widely adopted? Because the Romans had a great rational and therefore organizational capacity. They always adopted the best expressions of other peoples, they were not afraid of change. They also had a great love of country and for this reason they knew how to choose the best men to drive and to fight. The power of the dictator was endowed with temporariness, fullness of power and the particular procedure for designating the dictator. The power of the dictator was absolute and could not be controlled by any institution or magistrate. He could suspend all other magistrates provided with imperium or keep them in their office, but subordinate to himself. He was originally chosen from among the patricians: only from 356 the dictatorship was also accessible to the plebeians. Although the great scholar Theodor Mommsen believes that the Roman dictatorship was an extraordinary magistracy, the sources do not show any distinctions between ordinary and extraordinary magistracies. It is also difficult to consider the dictator as a magistracy, because unlike all the magistracies of the republican age, he did not have: magistrates, - instead it was dictus, that is appointed, by a consul in agreement with the other consul and with the senate, following a ritual that provided for the appointment at night, in silence, facing east, and in Roman territory. Indeed, Cicero and Varro link the etymology of the term to this particular appointment procedure. The dictator, appointed as his lieutenant, the magister equitum (commander of the cavalry), and it is likely that this was the ancient commander of the infantry, the magister populi, and this would explain the ancient prohibition for him to ride a horse. The dictatorship declined in the century. III above all due to the enlargement of the power of the Senate and the multiplication of magistrates endowed with empire; so that the dictator became both useless and suspect to the senatorial oligarchy. The last dictator with military powers (rei gerundae causa) is from 216; the last "comitiorum habendorum causa" dates back to 202. The dictatorship was renewed by Silla, who got the title of "dictator republicae constituendae" in 82 and deposed it in 79. Then Caesar, after a first brief dictatorship in 49, he then had himself nominated in 48 dictator for an indefinite period and in 46 annual dictator for the duration of ten years. After the death of Caesar the dictatorship was never renewed, because the emperors were born. The dictatorship was resorted to only in extraordinary cases: - particular dangers from external enemies, - riots, - serious impediment to the operation of the consul who appointed him. When there was a need to appoint a dictator, the Senate issued a decree, the senatus consultum , which authorized the consuls to appoint one, who took office immediately. Often the dictator remained in office until the danger had ceased, and then resigned and returned the powers granted to him. However, he did not remain in office for more than six months, and he resigned once the year of office of the consul who had appointed him expired. The dictator was endowed with summum imperium , that is, the faculty of issuing orders that no one could escape, uniting within himself the power of the two consuls, and for this he was accompanied by twenty-four lictors. Furthermore, he was not subject to the limitations of the tribunes of the plebs nor to the limit of the "provocatio ad populum", the possibility that the people could transform the death penalty of a person sentenced to death into another penalty if requested by the convict. For this reason his lictors also turned inside the pomerium with the axes inserted in the lictor beams. All the other magistrates were subordinate to him. However, it seems that later the dictators had to bow to both the tribunes and the provocatio. Ordinary magistrates (such as consuls and praetors) remained in office, but became subordinate to the dictator.In the event that they disobeyed the dictator's orders, they could also be forced to resign. And while a dictator could ignore the right of Provocatio, that is, the right of pardon by the plebs to a condemned man who turned to it, but this right, as well as the independence of the tribunes of the plebs, in theory also continued to exist. during the dictatorship. His power was equivalent to the sum of the powers of two consuls together, with no control over his work by any governing body. Thus, when there was this need, it was as if Rome were returning to the monarchical period for six months, with the dictator taking the place of the ancient monarchical king. He was then accompanied by twenty-four lictors outside the pomerium and twelve inside (as it was for the king), on the contrary a consul had twelve outside the pomerium and six inside. As an external sign of the provocatio ad populum the lictors who preceded the consuls, when they were in the city of Rome, wore the fasces without ax, indicating that the magistrate lacked the power to deliver capital punishment. Outside Rome, as happened on the occasion of military campaigns, power was generally full, and the lictors therefore had the bundles with the axes. Inside Rome, however, the dictator had lictors with axes in the bundles. The normal government was dissolved and everything passed into the hands of the dictator, who had absolute power over the res publica. He then appointed a Magister equitum (cavalry commander) to be used as his young subordinate. The last dictator was appointed in 202 BC. After this date the extreme emergencies were managed through a senatorial decree; senatus consultum ultimum, corresponding today to the state of emergency. In this way the normal civil government ceased and martial law was declared, investing the two consuls with dictatorial power. There are many reasons for this change. Until 202 BC, dictators were often appointed to quell the riots of the plebs. In 217 BC, a law was passed which gave popular assemblies the right to appoint dictators, removing the monopoly of the aristocracy, which had had it until then.
🇮🇹💪🏻💪🏻💪🏻THE ROMAN PEOPLE Publio Annio Floro: " If we consider the Roman people as if they were a single man and carefully examine their entire historical cycle, how it began, how it grew, how it almost reached a certain flowering of youth, how it has aged, so to speak, yes they will find four degrees of development. The first period under the kings lasted about four hundred years, during which the Roman people fought with the neighboring peoples in the surroundings of the same city: this will be childhood. Proceeding from the consuls Brutus and Collatino to the consuls Appio Claudius and Quintus Fulvio (the people) extends for one hundred and fifty years, during which he subdued Italy: this was the most intense period for men and for arms, and therefore it could be defined (his) adolescence. Later up to Caesar Augustus there were one hundred and fifty years, during which he pacified the whole earth: here there is now the very youth of the empire and I would almost say the robust maturity. From Caesar Augustus up to our time there have been no less than two hundred years, during which the people almost aged and weakened due to the inertia of the Caesars, except that under the emperor Trajan they moved their muscles and beyond hope of all the old age of the empire invigorates as if its youth had been restored. " This not disinterested ovation to Trajan is not true, the Roman people obtained during the republic, but at the cost of a civil war, equal or almost equal rights between patricians and plebeians, and had by Caesar Octavian a notable recognition of the rights of women. . The image above is the "Genius of the Roman people." Surely he had much more of it than today, and was feared more than today by the rulers, and he took to the streets to assert himself much more than today. According to tradition, it was the first king of Rome, Romulus, who dictated the first military and legal political laws. But the choice of kings was up to the Roman people and when this right was violated with the Tarquins, the people drove out the monarchy and founded the Republic. "The Roman people, having driven out the kings, established the Consulate " The Latin saying:" Vox populi vox Dei ", that is, the voice of a people is the voice of a God. SPQR senatus populusque romanus - the senate and the Roman people The inscription was emblazoned in the banners of the Roman legions and carved on every new monument in ancient Republican Rome. But in Rome the holder of sovereignty was not so much the senate as the populus Romanus Quiritium . The senate had only auctoritas, which was exercised in the senatus consultum , that is the right of the senators to advise the magistrates in the measures to be taken and in the proposals to be made to the people. Instead it was up to the people to decide on war and peace, and in the appeal between the death sentence and the sentence to corporal punishment. It was always the people who ratified a covenant pact, the end of a war or a peace treaty, making each of these acts executive or not. Thus the people had a very broad sphere of competence with a democratic type of government. But more importantly, the people could choose the magistrates and thereby determine the composition of the senate, since the senate was made up of former magistrates, later also by members of the lower judiciary up to the quaestors. On the occasion of the elections, the people gathered in the army headquarters on Campo Marzio, but the women did not vote. Like the army, the electoral body was also divided into centuries called comitia centuriata . Each century had one vote, so that the 1st class, made up of those who could access the consulate, with its 98 votes to 95, had an initial advantage over the mass of voters, often making voting unnecessary. The Tribunes of the Plebs For the election of the Tribunes, the plebs, according to the provisions of the lex Publiha , promulgated in 471 BC at the end of a civil war, went divided by district, tribus , to the comitia tributa . At first there were only 4 city districts, later also 17 provincial ones called tribus rusticae , and finally, starting from 241 BC, 35 tribes, each with one vote. The task of the tribunes of the plebs, which at the beginning were 2, from 241 onwards increased to 5, then to 10, to protect the plebeians from the arbitrators of the magistrates. This right, called ius intercedendi or ius auxilii, did not naturally extend to the battlefield, where obedience was fundamental to the salvation of the state. But above all the people had the right of veto, which allowed them to appeal against the resolutions of the senate and the orders of the magistrates, and to impose the resolutions of the people, that is, the plebiscites through popular assemblies convened by virtue of the ius agendi cum plebe . Right almost never exercised today in the civil world. This right was based on the priority of the plebs, or, as tradition says, on a further organization of the plebs to "state within the state". Its relationship with the resolutions of the totality of the people, that is, with the legesit remained under discussion until 287, when the lex Hortensia sanctioned the full equality of rights between patricians and plebeians. The auxiliary construction magistrates of the tribunes were the aediles plebis , also elected during the tribute rallies, exercising the jurisdiction of the market and, by virtue of the ius prensionis , that is the right of the tribunes to arrest the reluctant, also the police power. At their side were the aediles curules , in whose office, from 338 onwards, plebeians and patricians alternated regularly. It was up to the curules to organize the shows on the occasion of the holidays. The higher jurisdiction was in the hands of the praetor urbanus . From 241 onwards there was a praetor at his side, here inter peregrinos ius dicit and to whom during the military campaigns it was up to replace the consul; 6 lictors were assigned to him for this purpose. The edicta praetorum , published year by year, made known the legal principles followed. ruclips.net/user/sgaming/emoji/7ff574f2/emoji_u1f4aa_1f3fb.png
🇮🇹 ✋🏻 THE ROMAN SENATOR The term "senate" derives from the Latin senex, which means elder, because the members of the senate were initially the oldest of the Roman people. According to tradition, the senate of Romulus was made up of 100 patrician members, who formed the "council of elders", only males with experience and wisdom, similar to the tribal order. " Romulus, after he founded Rome, chose one hundred of the oldest citizens whom he called senators for old age. He reigned and did all things with the council and with the help of the senators. The number of senators was almost identical under the other Roman kings. , but after the expulsion of the kings, when the republic was established, the number of senators increased because the men who had held the highest magistracies, that is, the police headquarters, the civil servant, the tribune of the plebs, the praetorate, the censorship and the consulate , became senators by right. The senators were also called patricians, since they were considered the guardians and defenders of the republic (homeland) both in favorable circumstances and in adversity. " (Eutropio) The Roman Senate (Senatus romanus) was the most authoritative institutional assembly in ancient Rome, the meaning of which was "assembly of the elderly", whose members were called Patres (fathers from which homeland, ie land of the fathers, and patricians). The assembly was established in the royal age by Romulus, and survived even after the fall of the Roman Empire until the seventh century. Traditionally, it was Romulus who instituted a senate of 100 members (Liv., I, 8), divided into ten decuriae, which each had to have originally ten members and always 100 members had the senates of the cities founded by Rome. But the normal number of senators in historical age is 300, a number relevant to the royal age with three tribes and thirty curiae. Probably Tito Tazio, Tullo Ostilio and Tarquinio Priscus added Sabine or Alban senators or minores gentes. The first Roman families, called gentes, were formed by an aggregation of families under a common patriarch, called pater. Each of the pater, considered the founders of the various families, formed the federal council called the Senate which elected a king. When he died, power returned to the patres who elected another king.
🇮🇹💪🏻THE POWERS OF THE SENATE IN THE REPUBLICAN ERA - the consultative power, that is, to be consulted before passing a law; - to control the priestly colleges and found temples; - to control the imperium militiae; - to authorize the draft, - to control war operations by supplying the legions with grain, wages and clothing; - extend the office of commanders, after the consular year, or send another one; - award the triumph or ovation to the victorious commanders; - signing peace agreements and treaties; - declare war; - receive the submissions of foreign peoples; - send "legates" to resolve disputes or make suggestions; - deliberate on the foundation of colonies; - check the work of the magistrates; - discuss and approve the bills to be submitted to the rallies; - promulgate the senatoconsulto; - decide on crimes committed in Italy that require investigation by the Res publica, such as betrayals, conspiracies, poisonings and assassinations; when a private individual or a city in Italy needed peace mediation or required an intervention against damage suffered, or for a request for help or protection. - to appoint the most judges among the members of the Senate, in civil, public or private trials of particular gravity (only in that trial). - control the aerarium with entrances and exits. Quaestors could not carry out public expenses without having obtained the decree of the senate, with the exception of those requested by the consuls. - controlled and approved the expense that the censors established every five years for the repair and construction of public buildings. - the senate could grant the qualification of legatus to a senator who went to the provinces giving him the right to a special treatment. FOR AGAINST: - Gaius Gracchus deprived the senators of the privilege of being judges in perpetual matters by returning it to the knights; it was given back to the senators by Silla and, after other events, definitively divided between the two orders by Caesar. - attendance at the sessions was compulsory under penalty of a fine or a capio pignoris for the absent senator; - Already from the century. III BC the senators could not give themselves to speculation and were therefore excluded from public contracts; - they could not have cargo vessels with a capacity exceeding a certain limit, and under the empire the right to lend at interest was also subjected to restrictions. - The senators were obliged to reside in Rome and could not leave Italy without the permission of the senate; in serious moments they could be ordered not to leave the city.
🇮🇹😉THE THREE CAREERS (part II) EQUESTRIAN CAREER The main functions of the career reserved for the characters of the equestrian order were the procurators and the prefectures, but normally to access them one had to have completed a few years of military service with a certain degree. These degrees, which were called militiae equestres, which were three from the beginning of the second century: 1) the prefecture or the tribunate of an auxiliary cohort, that is, the command with the title of praefectus or tribunus of one of those numerous bodies infantry auxiliaries, called cohortes and enlisted outside Italy, who flanked the legions; 2) the tribunate of the legion, or tribunus militum in the legions, which was also the degree to which the young men of the senatorial family performed military service. The Laticlavii were of the senatorial order, and the Angusticlavii of the equestrian order. The clavus was the purple stripe that edged the white tunic of Roman senators and knights; that of the senators was wider (latus) than that of the knights (angustus). In place of the Angusticlavio legion tribunate, the tribunate could be covered in one of the urban bodies, that is, it could be tribunus of one of the cohorts of the vigiles, urbanites, or praetorians; 3) the prefecture of a cavalry wing, that is the command, with the title of praefectus, of one of those numerous auxiliary cavalry corps, called alae and enlisted outside Italy, which flanked the legions. In the cursus honorum equestri the expression a tribus militiis, or a militiis, is frequently used to indicate that the character has fulfilled his military obligation. In the post-Severian age, another is added to the tres militiae, namely the degree of centurion in the legion (which means that belonging to the equestrian order opens up to socially less elevated classes; previously the knights had served in the legion with the degree of tribuni militum, now with the lowest one of subordinate officer, of centurion), and we speak of quattuor militiae. After having performed military service in the aforementioned degrees (but it could be enough to cover only one), the character of the equestrian order could access a series of positions called procurations and prefectures. The procurators were divided into three groups: - financial offices, and the knights directed them with the title of procuratores, - offices with administrative or military functions in certain small provincial territories, - offices assigned to the palace and the imperial chancellery. The prefectures: - some of an administrative nature (praefectus annonae, praefectus vehiculorum, i.e. head of the postal service), - others of a military nature: praefectus vigilum, that is, the commander of the corps of vigiles stationed in Rome; the praefectus praetorio, that is the commander of the praetorians; the praefectus Aegypti, that is the governor of Egypt, the only important province entrusted by Augustus not to a senatorial governor, but to a knight. Over time, however, the praefectus praetorio became a kind of alter ego of the emperor. The characters of the equestrian order bear the title of "vir egregius"; those who reach the highest positions "vir perfectissimus" and "vir eminentissimus". When in the second half of the third century the senators were excluded from military commands and provincial governments, these positions were attributed to the equestrian order, with the title of "praefecti legionis" and "praesides provinciae". From the fourth century. all the offices once reserved for the characters of the equestrian order disappeared and were entrusted to the senatorial class, so that the cursus honorum equestre disappeared. To cover the consulate it was no longer necessary to have gone up the cursus honorum, but for the benevolence of the emperor. The highest functions of the senatorial career were: - praefectus urbi (who presided over the senate and was the link between it and the emperor), - praefectus praetorio, - proconsules - comites In fact the old title of vir clarissimus became vir spectabilis and, even more elevated, vir inlustris, which belonged to praefectus urbi and praefectus praetorio. As for the provincial governors, a higher rank than all the others belonged to the proconsules of Asia, Africa and Achaia, who were not subordinate to either the vicars or the prefects of the praetorium, but depended directly on the emperor, in whose name they administered justice. . At the head of the other provinces, in decreasing order of importance, there were consulares or correctores or praesides. LOWER CAREER Those who did not belong to either the senatorial order or the equestrian order could access four main categories: - in the civil administration (often entrusted to the imperial freedmen), - in the military functions of the lowest rank up to the degree of centurion, - in the civil and religious offices exercised in the individual cities, - in the offices of the corporations. IN THE CITIES The offices in the cities (municipalities, colonies) were the same as those of the ancient republican magistracies: - quaestores, - aediles (also called duoviri aediles) - duoviri iure dicundo (IIviri id), called duoviri id quinquennales or simply quinquennales when one they found themselves holding the office in that year in which censorship functions were to be exercised, which happened, as in republican Rome, every five years. In the cities there was also a senate, which was called ordo decurionum from the name of the decuriones (municipal senators). The offices in the guilds reproduced the municipal ones (aediles, decuriones etc.)
🇮🇹🤨THE LEGEND Amulius ousted his brother Numitor to reign alone on Albalonga, killing his sons and forcing his daughter Rhea Silvia to become a vestal because he did not procreate heirs to his throne. The God Mars, however, saw the girl while she drew water in the sacred wood and raped her, making her pregnant with twins: Romulus and Remus. Amulius had her condemned and died because she had violated the vow of chastity, but the river Aniene, where the body was thrown, took pity on her and resurrected her. King Amulius, to save them, had the children placed in a basket, entrusting it to the current. Due to the rains the Tiber had overflowed (which it will do until the twentieth century with the new embankments built for a good eight meters high), flooding the fields of the Velabro, and on that bank, called Cermalus, the basket stopped. Then the waters receded and the twins found themselves at the foot of a fig tree (ficus ruminalis). For others the basket stopped in a cave at the base of the Palatine Hill, called "Lupercale" because it is sacred to Mars and Fauno Luperco. A she-wolf, who came down from the mountains to the river to drink, attracted by the cries of the two children, joined them and nursed them. A woodpecker also brought them food, and the woodpecker was sacred to Mars. They were then found by a shepherd named Faustolo, the swineherd of Amulio, who together with his wife Acca Larenzia decided to raise them as children. The hut of Faustolo and Laurenzia was on the Palatine, in the "Germalo" area. Plutarch tells (Life of Romulus): It is said that the twins were brought to Gabii to learn the use of writing and everything that children of noble origins usually have to learn .. they were called Romulus and Remus in reference to the breast ... of the she-wolf ... Romulus seemed to possess greater capacity of judgment and an innate political perspicacity, showing in the relations with the neighbors for the right to graze and hunting a natural predisposition to command rather than to submission. And Livio adds (Ab Urbe condita): Strengthened in body and spirit, they not only faced the beasts, but ambushed bandits laden with booty. They shared the spoils of the robberies with the shepherds and shared serious and playful things with them, while the number of young people grew day by day. The twins were then attacked by bandits who wanted to take revenge on the loot they had stolen from them earlier. Romulus was saved, but Remus was captured and led by King Amulius, accused of theft in the lands of the king's brother, so he was brought to Numitor for him to judge. After several questions Numitor recognized his nephew while Romulus arrived and told him the family story. So the two brothers together with some companions killed Amulius and returned the throne of Albalonga to Numitore.
🇮🇹👍🏻THE ROMAN LAWS "According to the Romans the law was properly the decision of the people in the assemblies 'in lex est quam populus comitiis sciverit'. The four great magistrates: the consul, the praetor, the dictator and the interre the only ones who could deal with the people, even in the extraordinary cases of the soldiers who took the place of the consuls, the decemvirs and triumvirs enjoyed this right. The laws were proposed in the field of Flaminio called the Circus, in the wood of Petilino, but more often in the Forum or Campo Marzio. Not every day was suitable for this, so it was necessary to wait for the Latium days or rather that the sky with the wonders had not declared itself against the assembly. The magistrate who was to propose the law first composed it with the help of a council and then presented it to the Senate to obtain the votes. After these preliminaries he exhibited it in public written on a table so that the people could examine it. It lasted on display for three consecutive market days which was held from nine to nine days. When the time had elapsed, the one who had to propose the law gathered the people and after having it read by an usher, he asked the assembly's consent. If the law passed, he carved it out of bronze plates. The table was placed in the public treasury. Received it could only be annihilated by the people and said 'abrogatur lex cum prorsus tollitur'. Sometimes it was derogated only by modifying it in some part 'derogation sur legi cum detrahitur' and when, without any mention of this, another was published that was totally contrary to it, the term 'abrogari' was used. Festus 'Abrogare est legis infirmandae caussa aliam ferre' The first Romani legislator was Romulus. " The name of the law usually comes from the gens of the proposing magistrate: - consul for the lex comitialis, - tribune of the plebs for the Scythian plebis), declined to the feminine form, because in Latin law (lex, legis, nominative plural leges) is a word of feminine gender. When a law is drafted by two consuls, both names are marked, with the eldest's name marked first. The general denominations were: - Lex agraria - Law governing the distribution of public lands - Lex annalis - Establishes age requirements and time intervals for the Cursus honorum - Lex curiata de imperio - Law by which the Comitia Curiata ratified the choice of a new king, also confirming the adoption of Octavian as son of Gaius Julius Caesar - Lex frumentaria - Law that regulated the price of wheat - Lex sumptuaria - Law that regulated the use of luxurious objects and public manifestations of wealth.
🇮🇹🧐THE NEPOTISM The cursus honorum, that is the course of honors achieved or to be achieved, officially began with ten years of military service in the Roman cavalry or in the staff of a general who was a relative or friend of the family. Nepotism was not condemned, because every prestigious family had to continually keep up their prestige, either by fighting valiantly in war and or by building public buildings at their own expense in favor of the people. The fact is, however, that the member of the prestigious family had to keep this prestige high, demonstrating valor and ability in war, and magnanimity towards the state and citizens in peacetime. Therefore, nepotism was a guarantee of great commitment in order not to disfigure the gens and the ancestors. Roman candidates for public office were therefore chosen for their personal reputation and that of their family. It was also true that the member of a glorious family was raised to the respect and value of this glory that he absolutely had to emulate, so no one dared to disavow these values, even at the cost of his life. Candidates who came from older families were therefore favored because they could use the skills of their ancestors for their election propaganda.
BCE. You should just use BC. If you're going to use the same 0 year then you should just use BC. Your "before current era" starts at the same year as BC? What a coincidence. It's not because I'm a christian zealot, it's just annoying political correctness.
I agree. You know, it is very funny how things turn up and down... In the East, with the fall of 'communism' we started saying BC, instead of BCE 😁 ...But..., I have to point out that there was no Zero year and that's why the new millenium started with 2001, not in 2000 :] As the centuries and decades start with year x1 and end with x0, to be correct mathematically:)
🇮🇹🤓FIRST ROMAN SETTLEMENTS he oldest settlements of what will later become Rome date back to very remote times, even to Neanderthal man. The oldest seems to be in the Valchetta area, with human remains from 65,000 years ago, another in via di Torre Spaccata from 60,000 years ago. We move on to the Iron Age with the arrival of the Latins of Indo-European descent, therefore not indigenous, first a Latin-Faliscan group and then an Umbrian-Sabello group. Those same Latins who met Aeneas, according to tradition, when, fleeing from Troy, he landed in Lazio. Rome was formed with the fusion of many different people, because where different civilizations converge there is an exchange that amplifies knowledge. No civilization can boast a mass of people and races like Rome, a point of connection between the West and the East, also because it stretches out both on the river and on the sea. In ancient times the ground was covered with forests and dangerous for wild beasts, coast-to-coast navigation, or by river, was the least dangerous way to move. The Falisci occupied the Tiber valley, between the Cimini and Sabatini mountains, while the Latins occupied the Latium vetus, the ancient Lazio, which ran from the right bank of the Tiber to the Alban Hills, bordering the Etruscans north of the Tiber. The Volsci, and in part the Ernici, instead occupied the south of Lazio; the Aurunci, and a little the Rutuli, the Lazio Campana coast; the Sabines the Apennine area to the north, the Equi to the east. It is probable that the Hellespontus in Asia Minor (current Turkey) contributed to the union of cultures, when around 1100 BC, Troy fell and the survivors took refuge in Lazio. Excavations at the Foro Boarium have uncovered some Greek pottery from the 8th century BC which already showed commercial relations with the Hellenic colonies at the time. The Palatine huts, of which there are numerous traces, had a shape between the rectangular and the elliptical, in all similar to those of the hut urns of the same period, found in the archaic burial ground of the Forum, which served to contain the ashes of the deceased and they imitated the house where he had lived. The large holes along the edge and in the center were used to house the support poles of the roof, while smaller holes, on both sides of the doorway, had to support a particular and light cover in front of the door itself. The traces of the hearth were very clear next to the central hole. Their dating is from the 8th century BC, that is, fully corresponding to the date of the foundation of Rome, moreover, the remains of a palace have recently been found. The prehistoric tombs next to the foundations of the disappeared Arch of Augustus, in the Roman Forum, a culture similar to the proto-Villanovan one, with unadorned vases, probably from the 1st millennium BC, in the Bronze Age, are evidence of these settlements. A necropolis necessarily derives from a village of permanent dwellings. Another testimony is the necropolis next to the temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina with prehistoric burials, also in the Roman Forum, next to villages of huts, ranging from the 9th to the 8th century. BC, then reserved only for children's tombs until the 7th century BC The ancient inhabitants of Rome inhumed, unlike the later Romans who mainly incinerated the dead. Burial is characteristic of matriarchal or matriarchal societies, while cremation is patriarchal and nomadic. Which means that the ancestors of Rome were matriarchal, in fact returning the body to the earth presupposes a devotion to Mother Nature or Earth. Still finds from the Bronze Age in the Sant'Omobono area, at the church of Sant'Omobono, at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, with two temples, of the Dea Fortuna and of the Mater Matuta, from the sixth century. BC, two primordial Goddesses worshiped as Mothers of the pantheon, in short, Great Mothers of the Gods. The two twin temples were built on the area already occupied by protohistoric huts and only one has been excavated because the second is under the church. The Goddess Fortuna is the Greek Ananke, against whom, as Homer says, the Gods can do nothing, or the Roman Fatum, the one who guides the fortunes. It is no coincidence that in Palestrina there was the temple, Cicero talks about it, of Fortuna Primigenia, in whose temple lots were cast, that is, the dice to predict the future. In the center of Rome almost all the churches are built on pagan temples, to make people forget the old gods and because the people there used to go there. In addition, you could take advantage of the marbles and columns. The famous Cosmatesque pavements so frequent in Roman churches are nothing more than Roman marbles that have been broken up and reassembled to a design, and many of the columns are ancient Roman. To get an idea just visit the Pantheon where the gigantic Roman marbles are preserved intact. It seems that the temple of Fortuna dates back to Servius Tullius, and sacred prostitution, or Ierodulia, was practiced there, which was used throughout the Mediterranean and in all ancient civilizations, especially as a female priesthood (the male one is rarer). The sanctuaries were abandoned in the 4th century BC, with the end of the Etruscan monarchy.
🇮🇹💪🏻💪🏻💪🏻PROVOCATIO AD POPULUM The provocatio ad populum is an institution of Roman public law, introduced by the Lex Valeria de provocatione of 509 BC (drawn up by the consul Publio Valerio Publicola) and applied in particular in the republican period. The condemned man thus remitted the sentence to the rallies, in their capacity as supreme court. Scholars are uncertain or conflicting about a provocatio ad populum or similar institutions in the royal age, when the king had full jurisdictional powers, but in which it is possible that the assembly of patricians would meet for the most serious crimes. The prevailing opinion of writers in the republican age, therefore the primary sources, maintained that such an institution existed even in the royal age: Cicero, a very shrewd and documented author, in fact writes: "The books of the pontiffs say that the provocatio was also under the kings, and the writings of the greetings also say so "" provocationem autem etiam a regibus fuisse declarant pontificii libri, significant our etiam augurales ". The institution of provocatio introduced a right of the condemned to death to require that the sentence imposed on him be reconsidered by a city assembly only after the approval of the Lex Valeria, while for the preceding period the tradition refers only to a faculty of the rex in cases in which, at its discretion, it seemed more appropriate to refer the decision to a town meeting. The Roman people, to guide the politics of the state, used to gather in various assemblies called: - Comitia Curiata, - Comitia Centuriata - Comitia tributi - Concilia plebis The Comizi Curiati The comitia curiati were the oldest Roman assembly, according to some only patrician, for others also plebeian but with lesser powers. The Romans used a form of direct democracy, whereby citizen-voters voted for decisions in the assembly. Each assembly was chaired by a magistrate who ruled on both procedural and legal issues. They decided on the "provocatio ad populum". The only way to control the power of the magistrate was to veto it by other magistrates: that is, either the tribunes of the plebs or the magistrates of higher rank. In a first phase the people expressed themselves 'through' the curiate rallies, then following the law of the XII tables the "provocatio ad populum" took place 'before' the centuriate rallies. The Comizi Centuriati It was the only one based on a timocratic (based on possession of property) and gerontocratic (the elderly between 46 and 60 years, had greater political dignity than the iuvenes, young people between 18 and 45 years ). Through the Ceturian rallies the people appointed censors, consuls and praetors, But they functioned as a court in the death penalty sentences, in the judgment of the crime of high treason and, at least in the republican period, until the end of the second century. BC, could subtract the accused, sentenced to death by the magistrate, who requested it by subjecting him to popular judgment. Appealing to the people, the accused insinuated the suspicion that a persecution motivated by political reasons was taking place against him. They therefore decided on the "provocatio ad populum". The Comizi Tributi They welcomed both patricians and plebeians, and elected the Quaestors, the Curuli aediles, auxiliary offices and, for a certain period, also the pontiff maximum and other priestly offices. In the late Republican era, they conducted most of the trials. They did not decide on the "provocatio ad populum". The councils of the plebs They were formed following the secession of the plebs on Monte Sacro in 494 BC to claim the right of the plebs to participate in political life. Thus the tribunes of the plebs and the aediles were created. The deliberations of the plebs gathered in the assembly convened by the tribune of the plebs will take the name of plebiscite (plebiscites). Of course, patricians will be excluded from these assemblies. They did not decide on the "provocatio ad populum". In the Republican age the right to provocatio was then subjected to various restrictions by the senate and the magistrates, jealous of their jurisdictional prerogatives, but nevertheless remained. In the imperial age, this institution disappeared, replaced by the appeal to the emperor. This interpretation is refuted by other scholars, as it would be erroneous to qualify the provocatio as an "appeal to the people", since the appeal presupposes the previous judgment of a magistrate, a judgment that is lacking here: in that phase of Roman law, the people are in fact already holder of its own jurisdiction, the function of iudicatio, which coexists together with the coercion of the king. In this interpretation, therefore, the provocatio has the function of "buffering" any excesses of imperium, first of the king and then of the magistrates, but the role of the assembly is not that of appeal, but of real judgment, in when the act of the magistrate is an act of administration, not an act of jurisdiction. In the imperial age the provocatio is still attested, but by now the populus is replaced by the emperor. But a new figure is imposed: the Roman citizen by pronouncing the words "Caesarem appello" escaped the jurisdiction of the provincial magistrate and the case was transferred to Rome. St. Paul escaped condemnation for two years thanks to this appeal and was taken to Rome. Augustus loved to transfer the different powers, and his successors imitated him. The Jurist Paul in "Sententiarum Receptarum libri quinque" writes: « Iulia de vi publica damnatur qui… civem Romanum antea ad populum provocationem nunc imperatorem appellantem necaverit necarive iusserit. " (Lex Iulia De Vi Publica, he who kills or orders to kill a Roman citizen who has appealed, before the people or before the emperor, be condemned.
Very enjoyable. One inadvertent error, the Temple of Janus opened its gates in times of war and closed them in times of peace, not the other way round.
Jupiter Optimus Maximus sounds like the name out of Transformers
Jupiter meant "God the Father" in proto-European language. Ju= Dieu, Zeu (Zeus), Theo, Geo (Mother Earth). Piter= Vater, Padre, Pater, Father
@@joebombero1 Interesting. You are correct. I would add that the radical Ju = Dieu, ultimately comes from the same radical as dia (day/day sky), meaning "bright one". It also makes sense that Jupiter is a sky (father) god. So "Ju" does double work here.
Maybe it was the fact that Jupiter was the top god (not to mention the father of most of them) that made the radical for sky to be used to denote any kind of god.
Fun stuff. I had a professor back in the 80s who was into ancient languages and linguistics and taught us this theory. I always loved it and just thought I would share.
Link or it didn't happen.
😆
This is the most comprehensive explanation I have come across of Roman history so far, thank you!
Wait till you find out about Mike Duncan's podcast xd
Roman history about the monarchy/early republic in a nutshell
Source:Dude, Trust me.
Lol
For real. Rome is one of the earliest examples of Branding.
It’s all branding. Most of history is based on someone’s cousin talking to a guy who had a dream about meeting someone who was there.
Great work mate, keep the videos coming!
I agree that the characterization of the Roman nobles spontaneously overthrowing the monarchy is kind of odd, but when you take the kings together as a sequence you can sus a few clues out. One of the things Livy discusses, but which you don't dwell on in your dicsussion, is the fact that the kings were elected by various means. The Tarquins were the first pair to have a son suceed a father, and seemed to be poised for it to happen again. Reading between the lines you can see the outline of an attempt to establish a primageniture based monarchy, with the rape being used as a justification for revolution.
Personally Ive always been fascinated by the way that the early methods of electing the kings is almost echoed by what the concept of the Res Publica became in the dominate, and particularly Byzantium. While the people are no longer choosing their king, the idea that those who live in the city have some right to choose who rules them continued through the end of the empire, and apparently was also present from the start.
I've never before heard the story you depict here of Brennus and the Roman war indemnity payments. The version I'm familiar with was that as the Romans had finally evened out the scales of what they owed the Gauls, Brennus callously threw his sword onto the Gallic side of the scale requiring the Romans to pony up more gold equal in weight to his sword before Brennus was satisfied. When the Romans protested against this obvious manipulation of the scales he famously stated "Woe, unto the vanquished...".
Robby House This is same as what I heard on Mike Duncan’s podcast. I actually like this Brennus the generous version. It sounds more plausible. I’m also happy he didn’t mention the make believe ending when Rome finally defeats Brennus and getting all of Romes gold back.
@@Wallyworld30 Yes, I always found the story of Rome's leading men executing a follow-up victory to recover Saturn's gold a nice work of fiction. However, I certainly don't share your ideas of plausibility with respect to Brennus being all Mr. Nice Guy. LOL! I mean that's just bonkers crazy right there.The version I"m referring to did give birth to Brennus's rather famous one-liner: "Woe onto the vanquished!" He was basically saying "Tough Shit!" to all the Romans who were crying foul at the general's brazen attempt to tip the scales in his favor which cost the Roman treasury yet more gold and/or silver. Basically it's a lesson about the hard knocks of life that do indeed come a'knockin when your city or state or kingdom, etc. has been defeated in battle...the sense of powerless and lack of control, etc...
Robby House I’ve never heard this Brennus the generous version. It’s was like a Gaul tilt to the propaganda when we we usually get Rome’s. “Woe unto the the vanquished” is a bad ass line though.
Yes this is the correct version, and I was just about to comment it.
“Woe to the vanquished” (vae victis) is one of the most famous sayings in all of Latin as is the story behind it, so there’s zero chance every telling of it is wrong except this one
Great pacing and approachability and the occasional joke keeps it lively, love it!!
So nice to see you tackle this subject.
I love this topogy map you're using here, it's beautiful
Oh boi I’ve found another history RUclipsr with great videos 👍
In the beginning you say that the map of Rome is a bit misleading because the Tiber should be flowing from east to west rather than north to south, but when I zoom in on Rome on google maps the map looks right to me. The Tiber is mostly flowing from north to south, and the Roman hills are located east of the Tiber.
"The romans were not that self reflective as a people"
The worst trait you could possibly have XD
A trait that modern Americans have?
@@txvoltaire you got it~
You are funny.
According to Mike Duncan Podcast Brennus and the Gauls monkeyed with the scales and when the Romans pointed this out and complained Brennus threw his sword onto the scales and further throw off the weight. Saying “Woe to the vanquished!”. I’ve never heard the Brennus the generous version of the story.
Thank you for your amazing work
The early period is actually the period of Roman history that interests me the most
ROOT CANAL Latin was required for 2 years in my high school, and an additional language for the second 2 years. The premise was that Latin is the baae language for others and will enable understanding them easier. It did for me, tho conjugating those damn Latin verbs was the root canal that wouldn't end.
"Rome was a sausage party"
Omg I love this channel so much lol.
I had heard of Tarquinius Superbus in the past but had always assumed he was an excellent mode of public transportation. Thank you for clarifying.
About the Troyan past of the Romans, there is some evidence that Etruscans originated from Asia Minor so it's not impossible that when Etruscans romanized and Etruscan aristocrats entered Senate a memory of this was also romanized and connected to Troy myth. Many important Romans during the Late Republic were of Etruscan origin so they could have interpreted their Etruscan memories as Roman ones.
A fun and interesting series of books to read about Rome during the republic is by Colleen McCullough.
Read the appendices first as they give good information on Roman culture. There are good maps and busts of the main characters.
The meanings of Roman names is hilarious.
You got the tradition wrong concerning the gates of the temple of Janus.
The gates of Janus were opened during times of war and closed during times of peace.
Needless to say the gates of Janus were rarely closed. Much like our American republic, Rome was rarely at peace and some conflict was almost always ongoing.
🇮🇹🧐THE POMERIUM
The ancient cities, both Latin and Etruscan, required a magical religious ritual for the foundation. The center of the city, the "mondus", was established through the priests, tracing a furrow around it and sacrificing a heifer, a symbol of fertility, to delimit the sacred area.
Then various religious symbols were buried in the "mundus", including the Lares and the Penates, as well as statuettes of the gods protectors of the city. The mundus became for the Romans Hades, or the kingdom of the dead.
In this enclosure, called the pomerium or pomerius, only temples or sacred areas could be built, for which a second groove was traced, intended for the government of the people, that is the palace, the comitio, the forum etc.
Outside of this one could build for citizenship, and then the fields followed. The walls were then arranged on the furrow. The sacred enclosure delimited and defined the Urbs, the city consecrated to the Gods and therefore unassailable and invincible. Only cities with a pomerium were Urbes. The others were Oppida, deprived of divine protection.
The ancient Pelasgian cities are in fact built with three concentric walls of walls (see Artena, Norba etc.). The first with the great temple, the second with the palace and the agora, the third to protect houses and fields.
In the legend, Remus is killed by Romulus, probably armed, because he crosses the sacred furrow, thus committing a profanation of the pomerium, a profanation that was paid for with death.
Remus was buried on the Aventine in a place called Remoria, in memory of which a Remuria (or Lemuria) feast is celebrated every 9 May to remember the dead as Ovid tells us. Romulus was thus the first king of Rome.
Great content. Thank you.
great content, thanks
I don't think those parallels between Rome and Athens are to coincidental to both be true, history is filled with surprising coincidences. I often compare it to how the American and French Revolutions happened so close to each other.
That wasn't a coincidence at all lol, it was totally connected, absolutely connected.
While I think that liberal revolutions would happen in the era regardless of those two in specific, both events are related, and the FR can't be spoken about without the American.
@@BobanOrlovic Well maybe 6th Century BC Greece and Italy were more connected then we give them credit for.
JaredMithrandir I would agree with you if we didn’t already know that the Romans would steal the best aspects of every culture. *especially* Greek
@@Kuudere-Kun If we go by ancient Roman and Greek historians, Kingdom era and early Republican Rome was still very much a part of the Greek cultural sphere. 2 of Rome's first 7 kings were said to be from Corinth(Tarquinius Superbus and his father). Alba Longa was said to be Greek and Latin colony, and Rome a colony of Alba Longa. The mythical founder of the Latium, King Latinus, was supposedly a Greek. I think there's a tendency to assume that when contemporary writings don't exist or haven't survived, later writers are fabricating history.
Hey I wasnt there but I think Brennus threw his sword on the scales to make the Romans pay more not less..
I understood that. I can’t remember why I made my comment but I think it had something g to do with what was said in the video..
thanks for this is awesome!
I love the idea that the romans were descended from the Trojans. Thats a cool story!
46:28 '... in my humble but right opinion...' Did you really say that? Contradictio in terminis.
Yeah,the time of the kings was great and adventurous!
Would you mind listing your sources on your videos? I'd love to be able to do further reading on this!
The Greek to Latin transitional period almost seems similar to our, Latin to English period. We can see a good broader example of that in the Roman Catholic Church who took until the 1960's for them to adopt the use of the native language in a much more diverse world that no longer contained the old scope of the Latin language.
“an excellent mode of public transportation“
have you considered investing in a cleaner, warmer microphone? love the channel but you could upgrade audio
Yeah he peaks out a lot
Supposedly the custom of carrying a ride over the threshold began with the peace treaty with the Sabine. This was one of the stipulations in it. It was to commemorate the fact that Rome was founded by captive woman. It may not be true but it makes a good story.
Hey, are you teaching any classes at OSU anymore? I would love to be a part
I just taught a class on Ancient Cities. I'm not sure what the future holds as of yet in regard to the fall.
@@ThersitestheHistorian Well let us know even if it is private, would love to learn from you
The temple of janus would actually have to doors open when they were at war. Then closed when they are at peace.
As someone put it to me: Romans respected, romanticised and almost idolised Greeks and their culture. It just didn't stop them invading and usurping Greek states when it suited Rome to do so.
Re the story about Brennus putting his own sword on the scales when the Romans could not come up with enough, I can only observe "you cannot please some people". That said, I imagine that Roman's hatred of Gauls was more like due to a/ Romans propensity to have culturally entrenched hatred for others and b/ more to do with the city being sacked, rather than being let off the last couple of bucks of indemnity.
I have a good question, Thersites.
Was Licuius Junius Brutus really a contemporary of Cleisthenes? (Just for the record) I do believe there was "A" Lucius Junius Brutus. Just not the one we got in the story.
"Don't get stabbed over something dumb" is generally a good life rule.
🇮🇹😉🤓 LEGEND AND REALITY
The name Roma derives from the Etruscan name Ruma , an ancient goddess who had the ficus ruminalis as an attribute , sacred because the not yet ripe fig has a liquid similar to milk. The Pythagoreans also worshiped the fig fruit they carried in procession. In fact, a fig tree was perpetually at the foot of the Palatine. In short, the first Rome of the seven kings was above all Etruscan.
The legend tells that Romulus and Remus were suckled under the fig tree, in reality the suckling fig comes from the Goddess Ruma to whom a small temple was dedicated next to the fig. Ruma or Rumina was the Etruscan-Roman goddess of infant feeding, to whom only libations of milk were dedicated.
The name Ruma in fact means " breast"and, like so many Etruscan names, turning into Latin they transform the" u "into" o "like the word" rumax "which becomes" romanus "in Latin. Thus Ruma becomes Rome.
The legend tells that the two twins Romulus and Remus, abandoned in a basket on the Tiber river, they were suckled by a she-wolf who will in fact be the symbol of Rome. But the Goddess Lupa was also an ancient divinity, later assimilated to Acca Larentia, who was not a woman but the Goddess Lupa, rites the priestesses practiced sacred prostitution, or "hierodulia" imitating the verse of the she-wolf. On the other hand, the goddess of Etruscan fertility "Feronia", venerated at the foot of Mount Soratte, in Lucus Feroniae, by Latini, Sabini and Falisci, was a she-wolf goddess.
In ancient Rome, the derogatory term "she-wolf" remained to indicate a prostitute, the term "brothel" for brothels and the cry of the wolf that Roman prostitutes, no longer sacred, made to lure patrons.
Acca Larentia was therefore not a woman, as the patriarchate tells, but a goddess, in fact the Larentalia were celebrated in Rome on 23 December, and Augustus then ordered that the party be performed twice a year.
Akka in Sancrito means "mother". Therefore Acca Larenzia was the Mater Larum or " Mother of the Lares ", and the Lares were the patron ancestors for the Romans, including Romulus and Remus of course.
In fact, during the Laurentalia, sacrifices were offered to the Lares, cult of Etruscan origin, the spirits of the ancestors, who protected the gens, the extended family nucleus. More important than the family was in fact for the Roman the Gens from which he came, the one that could give prestige and fame, as well as protection. In fact it came even before the proper name: Julius Caesar belonged to the illustrious Gens Iulia (Giulia).
In the land of the Sabines, a Goddess Larenta, or Larunda, the "Dea Muta" of the world of the dead, or rather of the ancestors, was worshiped.
Александр Моисеевич Пятигорский (р. 1928) - востоковед, философ, писатель. В 1973 году эмигрировал из СССР. С 1974 года живет в Лондоне. В этом году издательство «Новое литературное обозрение» планирует переиздание сборника прозы, а также перевод монографии «Who's Afraid of Freemasons? The Phenomenon of Freemasonry» (London, 1997).Александр Моисеевич Пятигорский: «Надо убить сначала всех масонской ложи ..., а потом заниматься пацифизмом.Такова метафора новой политической философии. Вы согласны, да? Но в то же время я выступаю за какую-то гармонию. И это соответствие человека и мира неразрывно связано с моим представлением об этногенезе. Когда чеченцы стали жить в своих тесных ущельях, тогда еще не было ни древних германцев, ни римлян, ни античных финикийцев (греков) - никого. И впоследствии никакие мимо проходящие монголы (китайцы), тюрки, индо европейцы с севера и с юга не смогли чеченцев выгнать оттуда. Даже Сталину это не удалось, ибо Хрущев вернул наказанный народ на его место жительства». Из работы докторанта Института востоковедения Российской академии Наук. З. Х. Ибрагимовой:« во всей Евразии только у чеченцев и англичан генетический показатель нуклеотидной замены G 6 N16336 не равен нулю, у чеченцев он самый высокий 0.154, а у англичан составляет 0.014, у всех остальных народов он равен 0.0000…. . (академическим критикам нашей работы «Древняя Англия и Чеченцы» 1997-го года - А.Д.М.) писал в XIX столетии майор Властов: "... Сходство на сакральной территории древнего чеченского аланского народа Чианти этрусков (цанар) империи слов с латинскими, немецкими и английскими поразительно. Скажу более: я нашел в чеченском языке формы, встречающиеся только в образованнейших языках древнего мира. Я говорю об употреблении дательного с причастием и двух дательных независимых с причастием, которые согласованы с одним из них". Оригинальные бронзовые манжетовидные браслеты из тонкого гладкого листа, найденные у аула Сержень-Юрт (Чечня) не имеют аналогий ни в ближайшем культурном окружении, ни на Кавказе вообще. Их цилиндрический контур с острыми отогнутыми наружу краями отдаленно напоминает лишь западноевропейские браслеты из ранних памятников унетицкого круга. Это самые поздние отзвуки связей Северного Кавказа с культурами средней бронзы Центральной Европы. Перстни с двойными спиралями - одно из проявлений влияния ранней культуры Средиземноморья на Северный Кавказ через Центральную Европу (15; с.99; 115). географ Риттер, уже в XIX веке полагал, что " человеческий род людской мог расселиться по земному шару только из Кавказа, как центра своего...". Предания о выходе из страны Элл Нахов Азов сохранилось даже в древних скандинавских сагах, где часто говорится о стране Элл Нах "Азов" и городе Азов, жители которых перенесли с юга язык, религию, сказания старой Скандинавии (16; с.2).Одним из первых высказал эту догадку майор Властов: "Чеченцы древний арийский народ, индоевропейское племя, их родство с народами германского происхождения не подлежит сомнению. При некоторой смелости их можно назвать остатками территории древнего чеченского аланского народа Чианти этрусков (цанар) империи крестоносцев" (5; с.689)»
The earliest history of Rome comes from the Greeks. It is the Greeks that colonized Italy, Evander of Attica. If Rome was created 15 generations after the Trojan War it would have been founded around 2500 BC. AEOLEAN Greek was spoken until it morphed into Latin.
Bro, the 'Trojan War' if we were to establish that it really happened, was definitely definitely later than what you propose. How come Trojan War happened 15 generations before 2500BC if there were nothing even similiar to the Hellens and Hellenic culture for around a thousand years prior at least?
Ha ha!! Is that like everybody's favorite statue or what? Dude! What a crowd.
🇮🇹✋🏻THE URBE
“ I don't know if it is really worthwhile to tell the whole of Roman history from the very beginning. Even if I knew it, I would not dare to say it, because I realize that it is an operation as ancient as it is practiced, while modern historians either believe that they can make some more documented contribution in the narration of the facts, or that they can overcome the crudeness of the facts. antique in the field of style. Whatever happens, it will still be worthy of gratitude that I have provided, within the limits of my possibilities, to perpetuate the memory of the deeds accomplished by the greatest people on earth. "
(Tito Livio, Ab Urbe condita, Praefatio, 1-3.)
It seems that the first urban agglomeration settled on the Tiber Island, reachable by fording, and later by means of a bridge, expanding on the Palatine hill around the 10th century BC, subsequently the Esquilino and Quirinale hills were occupied. Along the banks of the Tiber, up to Ostia, there were, between the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, many villages, each based on a hill, down to the sea.
Before the "foundation of Rome", there was therefore a village on the Palatine, or on two heights: the Germalus and the Palatium, separated by a depression called "intermontium", and on the Velia, continuation of the Esquiline, between the Palatine and Opium.
The other settlements on the surrounding hills will refer to this village:
- the Esquiline, with the Cispius to the north, Oppius to the south and Fagutalis to the west;
- the Celio, formerly Querquetulanus for the sacred oak grove, then Caelius by the Etruscan hero Celio Vibenna;
- the Suburra da suburbio, sub urbe, on the slopes of Quirinale;
- the Viminale towards the Esquiline.
These settlements over time are organized into a league, with federal bonds, the Saeptimontium (the seven mountains), or the league "of the Seven Hills". In reality there are only two hills, the rest are mountains.
THE SEVEN HILLS
Aventine - Mons Aventinus;
Palatine - Mons Palatinus;
Quirinale - Collis Quirinalis, with the secondary hills of Colles Latiaris, Mucialis and Salutaris;
Viminal - Collis Viminalis;
Celio - Mons Caelius, with the eastern extension of the Celiolo or Caeliolus;
Esquilino - Mons Esquilinus;
Campidoglio - Mons Capitolinus, with the peaks Arx to the north and Capitolium to the south, separated by the "saddle" of the Asylum.
They report that King Numa Pompilius celebrated, in May and December, a procession along all seven hills, with sacrifices on the 27 tombs of the Argei. Which shows that at the time Rome already collected the seven hills.
According to Varro, the Argei were heroes following Hercules, who took away the Lazio lands from the Sicilian and Ligurian tribes and settled in a village, the Campidoglio, " founded by the God Saturn ".
The celebration was reserved first to the Latins, then to the Sabines of the Quirinale and then to the whole city. The myth of Hercules and his heroes suggests a patriarchal society that has replaced a matriarchal culture, as Bachofen demonstrated with his studies on Roman finds in the book "The Matriarchy". It is no coincidence that Hercules strangled snakes in his cradle that were the symbol of every Mother Goddess.
Honest criticism: uninspired delivery saved by well-written script. A begrudged like.
Excuse me, but your discussion near the beginning of video about the compass orientation of the flow of the river Tiber, as well as where the seven hills of Rome lie relative to the Tiber, is in error. In the vicinity of those hills, the Tiber did actually flow towards the south, with the seven hills located to the east of Tiber in that area. More importantly, Rome at that time was located on the SOUTHERN side of the Tiber relative to the greater north/south orientation of the Italian peninsula, with the nearby Etruscan rival city of Veii located north-northwest of Rome, with the Tiber lying between them as an informal border between the Romans and the Etruscans until the Romans conquered Veii.
"Tarquinius was a dick" nice !
My understanding....
Ie. The story I heard, was that Roman records from the royal and early republican periods were likely destroyed by the gauls during the sack of Rome in 390 bce.
🇮🇹✋🏻THE ROMAN CONSUL
The Roman Consuls took office from 367 BC onwards, but according to tradition from 509, that is, from the expulsion of the kings, that is, to the foundation of the Republic. The Consuls were eponyms, meaning the year of service was known by their names. Subsequently, in the late republic, the years from the foundation of Rome began to be counted (anno ab urbe condita) which was traditionally fixed in 753 BC Therefore in some inscriptions the number of the year is followed by the acronym avc which indicates precisely Ab Vrbe Condita .
THEIR POWERS:
the command of the army;
the right to bring the people together for a rally;
the right to convene and preside over the SENATE to have laws and provisions approved;
the administration of justice and finance;
the promotion of census works;
the execution of public works.
The two Consuls were in fact the executive body of the Roman State, elected by the Comizi Centuriati on the proposal of the consul in office, one year before their mandate, and the insignia of their authority were, in addition to the retinue of 12 lictors with lictors, the saddle curulis and the toga praetexta . They exercised the supreme civil and military power collegially and were elected every year. In the beginning they also held religious power, because an army could not be led into battle without having consulted the auspices.
According to Livio, their name derives from the God Conso, a divinity who "dispensed advice", as the two leading magistrates of the Roman Republic had to do. The word consultancy, of Latin origin, indicates an ability to advise decisions.
The two Consuls had equal power, except that each could invalidate the provisions of the other by vetoing the ius intercedendi . However, to avoid the intercession Iuswhich could block any decision, a political agreement was preferred between the two Consuls: in certain periods or in certain activities only one consul actually exercised power, without the other placing a veto. They generally followed shifts, dividing the year into periods, usually monthly, in which they alternated in civil affairs. For the military command, if both were leading the army, the shifts were daily. Sometimes, however, the two consuls shared the competences over which each exercised exclusive power. However, this did not concern the bills on which the two Consuls were to be united.
On the battlefield they had unlimited powers, but, after the year in office, they were called to account for their actions. They had at their command the two original legions, assigned to the service in the field and composed of 84 centuriae iuniorum , in all 8400 men, to which only later were two other legions, legiones seniorum , assigned to the defense of the city.
The cavalry was made up of members of the senatorial class: the equites.
If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when the consuls were in battle at the head of the army), another was elected, and was called consul suffectus. At the end of the year in office he became " Vir Consularis"and remained in the Senate until his death.
The Consuls, despite the limitation of the penal power through the judgment of appeal to the centuriate rallies, sanctioned by the lex Valeria de provocatione , had in their hands the imperium, which maintained the pre-eminently military character of the State, making possible the great successes of war. Thus military science is handed down from the gentes maiores to the new members of the nobility.
Auxiliary magistrates of the consuls were two quaestores, then raised to 4 in 447. In case of danger for the State, as among the Latin populations, a Dux was appointed, for the Romans a Dictator, appointed by the consuls, who since 356 onwards it could also belong to the plebeian class. The Dictator also commanded the consuls, was at the head of the army and had absolute power, but only for 6 months, and he himself appointed his lieutenant, the magister equitum (celerum).
During times of war, their appointment depended on military ability and reputation, also given by the gens of origin, but above all on the political connotation. Initially only the patricians could become consuls. With the Leges Liciniae Sextiae of 367 BC, the plebeians also became electors of the consuls; the first plebeian consul was Lucio Sestio, in 366 BC
The consuls were obliged to wear the toga, the official cloak of the consuls of the Republic often worn fastening it with a fibula on the shoulder. It was called the Toga Pieta , it was purple or dark violet, decorated at the edges with laurel leaves in gold.
Then the Toga Praetexta took over : a blanket of virgin wool, white in color, with a purple stripe on the bottom, of a trapezoidal shape, which rested on the left shoulder, while the lower extremity went down to mid-leg. The wool had to be immaculate in color and absolutely not to crawl on the ground. On her feet she wore the "calcei", that is ankle boots almost up to the calf, red in color. Naturally with short hair and beard.
In his left ring finger he wore the seal ring of his office. He always had the escort of twelve Lictors, bearing the lictor beams, but not inside the pomerium, there the Lictors could not enter, unless it was a Dictator, who did not even separate from them in the pomerium. Another emblem was the curule chair, sella curulis , where he sat in the Senate.
🇮🇹✋🏻INTERREX🤓
Interrex was an institution of Roman law, but common to other Latin and Italic peoples, born in the royal age (753 to 509 BC) and evolved in the republican age, for which, when the supreme power of the Roman state was lacking, this was exercised by an Interrex for a limited period of time. The institute is not specifically Roman, but of very ancient origin, and lasted until the end of the republican constitution: the last sure trace is from 43 BC
Specifically, in archaic Roman law, whenever the rex failed, power was attributed to the patres, that is, to the members of the Senatus who, however, exercised it in turn every five days. Thus the members of the Regium Consilium, that is the senate, subdivided for the occasion into ten decurie, interchanged every 5 days to prevent any of them from becoming too fond of the office and getting entangled in it attempting a coup d'etat. The interregnum could on the whole have a duration ranging from 5 to 500 days, within which a new king had to be appointed.
The Roman interrex was a magistrate who exercised his functions provisionally, in case of vacatio of the supreme magistracy; that is, in the event of the death of the king, or in the event that, although he was not dead, he had ceased from office without designating his successor. The Roman throne in fact was not hereditary but was elected by the people or designated by the last king.
The institute, which arose in the monarchical period, was applied in the republican period only to the patrician magistrates: it was never extended to the plebeian magistrates or to the promagistrates, especially since
the imperium was connected with the auspicia, which belonged only to the patrician magistrates .
Once the regents have fallen, he hopes ad patres redeunt, that is, to all the patrician senators who collectively exercise imperium and auspicium, until they have designated from among them who should exercise the interregnum.
The interreges gathered in their hands the sum of the powers, which belonged to the king in the primitive period or to the consuls in the first republican phase, prior to the creation of the court and other magistracies. The interrex could therefore exercise military command and jurisdiction, convene the rallies and the senate, and therefore had the twelve bundles of the consul as its insignia.
It is interesting to reflect on the matrices of words. The king is the rex, that is the one who holds, but the rex is "the Public Thing" supported by the king. The Thing is the set of things that the king provides, that is the administrative, legislative and executive power, assisted in the religious thing by the Rex Sacrorum, that is, the one who takes care (holds) of sacred things.
The word regent derives from rex, as well as the Republic is the Rex Publica, indicating a privileged and indissoluble link between the king and public welfare. This concept will be very clear in the first monarchy, at least until the power degenerated with the Etruscan kings, so much so that the Romans, accustomed to monarchs very attentive to the health of the people, in the face of the lust for power of the kings rebelled and drove them out.
Cicero (106-43 BC) in a famous passage from "De natura deorum", from 45 BC, had defined the "religious ex relegendo", being they "qui autem omnia, quae ad cultum deorum pertinerent, diligenter retractarent et tamquam relegerent" ("Those who carefully reconsidered and, so to speak, retraced everything concerning the cult of the Gods were called religious to be relegated", De nat. Deor. II 28, 72). The cult of the Gods and therefore the way to address them and obtain their benevolence or their responses is fundamental for the Romans, without "auspicia" nothing is done, on pain of calamity and defeats coming from the angry divinities.
The designation (prodere interregem) took place following an agreement between the patres (according to other hints of the tradition it would have been done by drawing lots), but, in any case, it seems to be excluded that the choice of the first interrex took place desired, and this would explain the reason why the first interrex could not proceed with the election of magistrates.
Instead it seems that the first interrex, which could not last more than five days, hastened to designate, after having taken the auspices on him, his successor, who, being nominated auspicious (i.e. hearing the auspices), could choose the consuls or the dictator.
The interrex had therefore received a mandatum, that is a consensual contract that obliged a subject (mandatàrius) to perform one or more legal acts on behalf of another subject (mandàtor), where the mandatarius was the interrex and the mandatores were the senators, but where the outgoing interrex became mandator of the subsequent interrex which became mandatarius.
The interregnum ceases as soon as the renuntiatio has taken place, that is the unilateral withdrawal of the interrex, as soon as the announcement of the outcome of the comitial vote on the proposed names takes place. Therefore, the restoration of the ordinary judiciary causes the renuntiatio of the interrex with the impossibility of coexistence between the two institutions.
But the interregnum ceases when it is possible to have even one consul appointed, as the appointment of the second takes place through the appointed consul, and not through the interrex.
During the republic, even after the creation of the magistrate's court, the interregnum was applied even when both consuls were absent. It is true that, since the court of law was covered, it was not a vacatio of the supreme magistracy, but, since the praetor could neither arrange for the appointment of consuls nor proceed with the appointment of a dictator, and therefore in any case at the end of the office of the The praetor should have proceeded to the interregnum, the custom was that, when the consuls ceased, the praetor also deposed the office and proceeded to the interregnum.
In republican Rome, the interrex was therefore used only to convene the comitia centuriata, the popular assemblies of the Res Publica Romana, with the aim of electing new consuls or new consular tribunes, when their predecessors had not been able to provide for themselves during their mandate. .
The elect received the imperium, which gave him the right to verify if the auspicia were favorable. Moreover, the interregnum was based precisely on the principle that, even in the event of the death of the sovereign, there was continuity in the auspicia, which "redeunt ad patres" (they return to the patres of the Senate), the only ones who have the right to contact the Gods for the salus of Rome.
Together with the auspicia, the auctoritas patrum also returned to the "fathers". With the term authority (auctoritas, from augeo, to increase) we mean that set of qualities proper to an institution or a single person to which individuals voluntarily submit to achieve common goals.
It is often used as a synonym for power, which however refers to the ability to achieve certain goals while the concept of "authority" includes legitimacy, justification and the right to exercise that power.
Each interrex held office for only five days, as during the royal period (753 - 509 BC); if, after five days, the election had not yet been held, the interrex designated his successor, to whom he transmitted his imperium and resigned. The interreges followed one another in this way until the new magistrates were elected.
The comitia to elect the first consuls, Lucio Giuinio Bruto and Lucio Tarquinio Collatino, consuls in 509 BC, were chaired by Spurius Lucretius (father of the unfortunate Lucrezia), appointed interrex for the occasion.
From 482 BC the interreges were chosen from the entire senatorial body and not only from the first decems, the ten most authoritative senators, as was the case in the royal period. However, since the plebeians were not admitted to this office, the election was decided only by the patrician senators who met without the plebeians; therefore, considering the influence that the interrex exercised in the election of new magistrates, the tribunes of the plebs fiercely opposed the appointment of the interrex.
- We have news of interreges up to the Second Punic War;
- They were then used at the time of Sulla when the Senate appointed an interrex to preside over the comitia for his appointment as dictator, in 82 BC.
- Another interrex was appointed in 55 BC to preside over the comitia in which consuls Pompey and Crassus were elected.
- The last known interrex is Marco Emilio Lepido in 52 BC, the year in which Pompeo was elected sole consul
King Romulus and his brother Remus are my ancestors.
Me too
@@aussiejunk393 so romulus butt fucked remus then remus farted out u2 is that how that worked or am i missin something?????
good for you. Though how can you be sure.
🇮🇹 ✋🏻THE CONSUL IN THE EMPIRE
In the imperial age the consuls continued, however nominated by the emperor and, after the foundation of Constantinople, they were elected one consul for the West and one for the East. The office still lasted in Rome even after the fall of the West, until 566, and in Constantinople until the seventh century. A.D
When the republic ended with Augustus and the Principality began, power passed into the hands of the Princeps, that is, of Augustus. The power of the Senate was reduced, and during the long reign of Augustus, many consuls left their office before the term to the consul suffectus. Those who were in office on 1 January, the consules ordinarii had the honor of associating their name with that year. Thus about half of those who had the rank of praetor could also reach that of consul no longer at 40, but at 33.
Sometimes the suffecti withdrew and another suffectus was named. This practice reached its extreme under Commodus, when in 190, 25 consuls alternated. Some emperors often appointed themselves, or their proteges or relatives, without looking at the minimum age. Honorius was given the title of consul at the time of his birth.
Holding the consulate was such an honor that even the secessionist Empire of Gaul appointed its pair of consuls (260 - 274). Constantine I assigned one of the consuls to the city of Rome and the other to the city of Constantinople. When the Roman Empire was divided in two, on the death of Theodosius I, each of the two emperors acquired the right to appoint one of the consuls. After the end of the Western Roman Empire,
The two consuls designated still took office on the Kalends of January, with a solemn ceremony that involved a processus (processus consularis) and a distribution of money to the crowd (sparsio), prohibited by the Emperor Marcian of Byzantium but reintroduced by Justinian in 537.
This office declined during the reign of Justinian: first with the consul of Rome Decio Teodoro Paolino appointed in 534 by Queen Amalasunta, and then with the consul of Constantinople, Anicio Fausto Albino Basilio, in 541. Later the consulate was taken over by the emperor itself, and it was unparalleled, so much so that when the Byzantine general Heraclius minted coins with the title of consul, he actually proclaimed himself emperor, in opposition to the reigning emperor Phocas. There were honorary consuls also in the seventh century, in fact, in 656, the bishop of Cesarea in Bitinia went to visit St. Maximus of Constantinople together with the two consuls Theodosius and Paul.
Мировые ученые (среди них - всемирно известные Г.Горбигер и К.Гаусгоффер), которые доказали такую концепцию; Арийцы, в том числе и предки германцев, как раса зародились 30-40 тысяч лет назад в восточной Азии, там, где ныне находится пустыня Гоби. Там процветала высокая цивилизация, которая затем погибла в результате катастрофы, приведшей к появлению пустыни. Часть на территории древнего чеченского аланского народа Чианти этрусков (цанар) империи, посвященная в тайные черные знания, осталась на Тибете, в Шамбале. Остальные переселились на Кавказ. Затем на территории древнего чеченский аланский народ Чианти этрусков (цанар) империя продвинулась в Северную Европу, а на Кавказе остался Асгард - очаг на территории древнего чеченского аланского народа Чианти этрусков (цанар) империи дух, где сохранилась Чистая арийская кровь. Там - арийский корень. Это священная земля всех предков арийцев, говорящих теперь на разных языках. На Кавказе в Асгарде сосредоточилось все Позитивное, что таит в себе древнего чеченского арийского народа республики кровь -такова была основа господствовавше го в Германии учения, которое, по словам Гитлера, было даже чем-то большим, чем религия.108
И здесь древнему чеченскому народу наступает момент удивиться, ибо из дальнейшего мы узнаем, что хранителями "духа Асгарда чистой арийской крови" был воспринята сакральная территория древнего чеченского аланского народа Чианти этрусков (цанар) империи. ruclips.net/video/wZEGBjCB98I/видео.html
just curious - why "preeter?" In classical latin, it would of course be the english long i. Among others, including starfleet command, it would be pray ter.
39:45 *
takes notes*
I was thought that the word senate comes the word for hundred (centum), as in century or centurion. That initially the senate had a hundred senators. But Wiktionary agrees with you. It has the same root as senil.
The Conscript Fathers.
Know way a wolf raising twin baby is historic fact.
Wait a minute, didn't Sabnites join up with Romans after that mess with the Sabnite women? Wasn't that why Senat chose Numa for king?
In all legends , there is usually some shred of truth....I don't find it illogical at all that Roman expulsion of kings resembles Athens in the least....actually if you think of it...it makes sence....how else would it go ??
🇮🇹✋🏻CURSUS HONORUM
The Cursus Honorum in Rome, in the republican age (and later also in the imperial age), obliged every citizen, who wanted to hold political positions, to follow a certain path, proceeding in increasing order of importance (cursus honorum) and according to age constraints determined by the lex Villia annalis (180 BC).
We know this from the inscriptions, especially from the honorary ones but also from the sepulchral ones, where the various priestly offices and functions of the subject in question were mentioned. In the Republican age, the characters whose cursus honorum is mentioned in the inscriptions belonged to the senatorial order, the only holder of public offices.
Then, above all thanks to Augustus, a certain part of the offices was entrusted, in Rome and abroad, to personalities of the equestrian class, while the lesser offices were also entrusted to the plebeians.
The lex Villia annalis was a plebiscite approved in 180 BC by the tribune Lucio Villio, whose family acquired the surname of Annalis for this reason. The law introduced a minimum age for access to the judiciary of the Cursus Honorum and a mandatory two-year interval between taking up two positions. The rules for re-election to the same judiciary remained unchanged, already established by a plebiscite of 342 BC.
It was impossible to be Quaestors before having completed ten years of military service (decem salary), a term that Silla then raised to 30 years.
In Cicero's time it could not have been
- curved builders before the age of 37,
- praetors before 40
- consuls before 43.
The lex Villia wanted to guarantee the rotation in power of the members of the ruling class, avoiding concentrations of power and the continuous succession of offices. The law is cited, among others, by Cicero and Livio:
" Legibus enim annalibus cum grandiorem aetatem ad consulatum constituebant, adulescentiae temeritatem uerebantur ..."
years, they feared the imprudence of youth… ”
(Cicero, Phil., V, 47)
In the Roman Republic every military and political office therefore had a minimum age for election. There were minimum intervals for holding successive offices and laws prohibiting reiterating an office.
These rules were sometimes modified or contradicted during the last century of the Republic. For example, Gaius Mario was consul for five consecutive years between 104 and 100 BC, but it is also true that Mario was recalled in a loud voice because he was an exceptional general who always won, in short, the guarantee of salvation. With the reforms of Lucio Cornelio Silla, however, an interval of two years was required for a new office or to compete for the same office again.
The Lex Villia was promulgated by Plebiscite, that is "questioning the social class of the plebeians".
The "plebis scitum" indicated the deliberation of the plebs alone gathered in the Concilia Plebis. Initially it worked only on plebeians. But with the Lex Hortensia in 287 BC, it was promulgated that decisions taken in the concilia plebis would bind all citizens.
In the imperial age, as the distinction between people and plebs disappeared, the difference between plebiscite and law also disappeared. Most of the legislative provisions, although referred to by Roman jurists as laws, were actually plebiscites. The Roman people counted so much at the time. No democracy today provides so much space for the people.
The Cursus Honorum was very important for the Romans, not only for public offices, but also for the respectability and honor of the Roman. Nobody would have started any job of a minimum of prestige if he had not first fulfilled his part in the military, fighting in any rank in the army.
Between 90 and 88 BC, Cicero served under Gneo Pompeo Strabone and Lucio Cornelio Silla during the campaigns of the Social War, in order to then be able to attempt the judiciary.
Properzio narrates that Maecenas participated in the campaigns of Modena, Filippi and Perugia before devoting himself to his splendid villa and the court of Augustus.
In short, even the great ones had to be honored by demonstrating their love of country. Already in the republican period the lowest magistracy, the police headquarters, was generally preceded by military service, which was performed with the rank of tribune of legion, and by one of the offices of the vigintisexviratus.
Having fought for Rome was the guarantee of the good cives romanus, and any rich, even non-aristocratic citizen would have opened the door of the house to people who could not tell about the life of a legionary spent for a certain period in favor of the homeland.
All this will end with the advent of Christianity which considered war a sin, but hired foreign soldiers to fight it and they had neither the sacred fire of heroism, nor love for an acquired homeland. Thus will fall the love of country, heroism, the myth of Rome and the importance of the Cursus Honorum.
🇮🇹 ✋🏻AGE DIRECTOR (Senate)
The senator of the royal age had, at least with the first four kings, executive power during the interregnum, he was the king's adviser and functioned as legislator together with the people of Rome. There were two categories of senators: the "patres" that is the patricians and their descendants, belonging to the early Senate, and the "conscripti" aggregated later by Tarquinio Prisco.
The original Roman senate was therefore recruited only from among the patriciate, but the plebeians would have entered the senate, for some sources, already at the time of Servius Tullius, or at the latest in the first year of the republic.
However, the admission of the plebeians to the judiciary, which took place in the mid-century. V BC, did not involve the entry of plebeians into the senate on an equal footing. The patricians continued to ratify the deliberations of the people's assembly, and the assumption by turn of the imperium in the interregnum. While the patricians were the 'patres', the plebeian senators were the 'patres conscripti'.
During the early reigns, the Senate's most important function was to elect the king. The period between the death of the previous ruler and the election of the next was called the 'interregnum'. When a king died, a senator nominated a candidate who could succeed the king. The Senate had to approve the nomination, to then be submitted to the election before the people and finally the Senate ratified the election. Thus the king was elected by the people, but on the recommendation of the Senate.
In addition, the senate acted as an advisor to the king, a non-binding but always important advice. Furthermore, the laws were entrusted to the king who, however, had to involve the senate and the people through the comitia curiata.
The appointment of the senators was up to the king or the supreme magistrate, but a Roman comitial law, on the proposal of the tribune Ovinio, at the end of the 4th century BC, gave the censors the right to draw up the list of senators (prerogative until then of the consuls), and he established that the choice should be made equally between patricians and plebeians, ensuring the seat from one lustrum censorio (five years) to another.
Legend has it that it was Romulus who decided that the senate was made up of 100 patricians (patres), doubled by Tarquinio Prisco and, with the advent of the republic, enlarged to 300 members by Lucio Giunio Bruto (545-509), all appointed by rex. The office of senator was conferred by the rex (king) in the monarchical age and was for life.
Optimus and Maximus I know but which transformer is Jupiter?
🇮🇹 ✋🏻THE CONVOCATION (Senate)
The Roman Senate could only meet in Rome, or within the first mile from the city, in consecrated and public places, usually in the Curia, which was located in the Roman forum; the ceremonies for the new year took place in the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus while the war decisions took place in the temple of Bellona. The meeting called for favorable wishes, which were taken by the president.
The Curia Hostilia sul Comizio and the Curia Calabra on the Campidoglio were also used, each with its relative senaculum; Caesar and Augustus then raised the Curia Julia on the Forum. Outside the pomerium there was a senaculum near the field of Mars; later they served the theater of Pompey and the portico of Octavia.
The convocation was made in an older age by means of heralds, then by edictum or in case of urgency with personal notice to each senator, indicating the place and time of the session, which had to begin between sunrise and sunset. (more often at sunrise); on the other hand, the agenda was not indicated, except in the case of a discussion of the political situation in general (de re publica).
In meetings, the senate usually took into account popular rallies, which required the presence of the magistrates under penalty of nullity of the senatoconsulto. After Silla, the senate could prohibit the convening of rallies on a given day, reserving it for the session of the senate.
The sessions were held in a closed room but with open doors and the tribunes of the plebs had in ancient times the right to place their seats in the vestibule to listen to the deliberations; the children and grandchildren of the senators could also stay there, but not other citizens.
Persons outside the Senate were admitted only on an exceptional basis, and the same subordinate staff of the magistrates were excluded; then the presence of lictors and scribes was admitted. Only the emperor could be accompanied by subordinates and officers of the guard.
The sittings were not public and the senators could also be required to fear secrecy. It was up to the president to maintain order in the meeting room. At the back of the hall, in front of the entrance door, the curved chairs of the magistrates or the benches of the tribunes, if they presided, were placed; the senators sat on their desks arranged on either side of the room, leaving a free aisle in between. There were no fixed posts under the republic; there were instead under the empire.
There was no time limit imposed on the speakers, who could, for the purpose of obstruction, carry on a speech until the end of the session. However, the speakers were required to be brief and serious. Cesare, when he was still a simple senator, bored by a long rant from Cato, ordered the guards to arrest him and escort him out of the courtroom. Naturally, Cato was readmitted to the protests of the patricians. Augustus, after the abuses of the last times of the republic, imposed a regulation.
y para los que no entendemos inglés? no hay ni subtítulos....
"Woe to non English speakers!"
Learn English
🇮🇹✋🏻THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PROVINCE
In the Republican age the various provinces were governed either by a magistrate cum imperio (consul, praetor), or by a promagistrate (proconsul, proprietor).
Augustus divided the provinces into two categories:
- the "imperial" ones under the direct dependence of the emperor (where he permanently stationed a garrison),
- the "senatorial" ones (in peaceful territories that did not require garrisons), which remained the responsibility of the senate except for the high surveillance of the emperor. The governors of these "senatorial" provinces had the title of proconsul, but only for the provinces of Asia and Africa, while for the others they were chosen from among the former praetors.
For example, a person who had served as a magistrate could obtain the office of proconsul provinciae Macedoniae; but only if he managed to hold the consulate could he aspire to the office of proconsul provinciae Africae.
The proconsuls of the two consular provinces (Asia and Africa) were assisted by three assistants with the title of legates (proconsulis), those of the praetorian provinces by only one of these legates; in every senatorial province there was a quaestor for financial affairs.
Those senators who governed an imperial province became "legate Augusti pro praetore", lieutenants of the emperor, with general power superior to that of individual governors.
Even the governors of imperial provinces were chosen either from the former praetors or from the former consuls, that is the "consulares", which from the second century onwards. onwards he designated the governor of an imperial province (in place of that of legatus Augusti pro praetore). From the second half of the second century, instead of the title of legatus Augusti pro praetore, the title of "praeses" (headmaster) was used for the governors of imperial provinces.
The governors of imperial provinces were assisted, for the financial administration, by procuratores of the equestrian order, while for the administration of justice they were assisted by comites (adsessores).
The senators were then mentioned in the inscriptions with the title of "vir clarissimus". If it was a deceased person, the title was "clarissimae memoriae vir" (cmv); for family members the titles of clarissimus puer (cp), clarissimus iuvenis (ci), clarissima femina (cf) were used.
My like and comment
🇮🇹✋🏻REPUBLICAN AGE (Senate)
The Senate became the fundamental organ of the Republic in 509 BC, as Livio tells us, one of the first measures of the first Roman consul, Lucio Giunio Bruto, was to reinforce the senate much reduced by the continuous executions of the last king, bringing the total to three hundred, and appointing the most prominent figures of the equestrian order as new senators.
Silla doubled the number of senators bringing them to 600, which Caesar increased again to about 900 and the triumvirs to a thousand and more. Augustus returned to the figure of 600. The office of senator was conferred by the consul in the republican age and was for life.
The Roman Republic (Res publica Populi Romani) was the system of government that went from 509 BC to 27 BC, and was born out of strong dissensions that led to the end of the Etruscan monarchy over the city of Rome. Tito Livio explains, or at least justifies, why the fall of the Tarquini monarchy did not happen before:
"And there is no doubt that Brutus himself, covered in glory for the expulsion of the tyrannical Tarquinius, would have acted extremely damagingly to the Res Publica if the premature desire for freedom had led him to dethrone any of the previous kings. In fact, what would have become of that group of shepherds and of the population if, having fled from their countries to seek freedom or impunity in the inviolable enclosure of a temple, they had freed themselves from the fear of a king and allowed themselves to be influenced by speeches factional tribunes and verbally clashing with the patres of a city that was not theirs, before conjugal love, paternal love and attachment to the land itself, a customary sentiment, had not united their souls? The Res publica, undermined by discord, he could not even have reached the age of majority. Instead, the atmosphere of serenity and moderation that accompanied the management of the government, brought growth to such a point that, once it reached the full maturity of its forces, it could bear the best fruits of freedom."
(Tito Livio, Ab Urbe condita libri, II, 1.)
At first the plebeian senators had only the right to vote, but when they went to the higher courts, all those who had held magistracies could speak and debate in the senate. Then when the judiciary became mandatory to take up the role, patricians and plebeians had the same rights in the senate.
Why use BCE instead of BC when the numbering has a purpose? I see you talk about how the Roman numbered their years form the founding of the city. Why do you not respect the fact that BC is the way the west started numbering years. It’s an insult, I know your trying to be incisive so respect everyone except Christians. That sucks even historían are extremely woke.
Question: Did any Greek or other Ancient Historians confirm the Roman thesis of being from Trojan origin?
The rest of the Greeks hated the Trojans and believed they succeeded in killing them all
“Rome was a sausage party.” Haha.
🇮🇹 🤨 DEATH OF REMUS AND FOUNDATION OF ROME
Romulus and Remus then left Alba Longa and went to the bank of the Tiber to found a new city in the place where they were born and raised.
Livio reports two versions:
Since they were twins and respect for the birthright could not function as an elective criterion, it was up to the gods who protected those places to indicate, through the auspices, who they had chosen to give the name to the new city and who should reign there after the foundation. Thus, to interpret the auspicious signs, Romulus chose the Palatine and Remus the Aventine. The first omen, six vultures, it is said was Remo's turn.
Since twice as many had appeared to Romulus when the omen had already been announced, the respective groups had proclaimed both king at the same time. Some argued that they had the right to power based on priority over time, the others based on the number of birds seen. A discussion arose and from the angry word fight it turned to blood: Remo, hit in the fray, fell to the ground.
The version according to which Remus, to make fun of his brother, would have climbed over the newly erected walls and then Romulus, in the height of anger, would have killed him by adding these words of defiance is more well known: "So, from now on then, whoever dares to climb over my walls may die ». In this way Romulus seized power alone and the newly founded city took the name of its founder.
Plutarch's version in " Life of Romulus " is similar to that of Livy, with the variant that Romulus would not have seen any vulture. His victory would have been the result of deception, for which Remo was angry and the dispute arose that led to his death.
When Remo realized that his brother had made fun of him, he was indignant and while Romulus was digging the moat with which he intended to surround the city walls, he scoffed at his work and tried to hinder him.
Finally he crossed the moat, but fell hit in that same spot, according to some by Romulus himself, according to others by a companion of Romulus, Celere. Faustulus and Plistinus also fell in the brawl, who is said to be Faustulus's brother and had helped raise Romulus and Remus.
For others Romulus had a wall built on the furrow (urvus, from which Urbs = city) traced with the plow, placing a rapid guard on it, to whom he gave the order to kill anyone who dared to climb over it. Unfortunately Remo had not learned of the order imposed by his brother and when he approached the wall, noticing how low it was, he jumped over it. The faithful Celere rushed at him and pierced him with the sword. Romulus, learned of the misfortune, was shocked, but did not dare to cry in front of his people, being by now a sovereign.
In a widespread tradition, by the local peoples, the twins were granted a land that was equivalent to the perimeter of a heifer skin. The twins were not discouraged: they meticulously skinned a large animal and made it into very small strips, placing them one after the other. The furrow of the pomerium was traced on those borders of skin. Surely it alludes to a sacrificial rite of the heifer.
It is very reminiscent of the myth of Cadmus who went to the Oracle of Delphi to find out where he should have founded the city of Thebes. The prophecy was: "Choose from the bellowing cows the one that has a white full moon design on both sides. Take it for your guide on the road you will have to travel. Where the cow will kneel and first place its horned head on the ground, at that point you will have to sacrifice it to the earth plunged into darkness. After having sacrificed her, she founds on a hill, the highest, a city with wide streets . "
The allusion to the moon and the heifer suggest legacies of the Mother Goddess I, or Europa, the heifer.
🇮🇹✋🏻THE CONSOLE IN THE REPUBLIC
The major magistral offices in the Republican age were:
Consul Tribuno Consolare Dictator Decemviro
Followed by other offices: censorship, magistrate, curule building, tribune of the plebs, police headquarters, plebeian building.
During the republic, the minimum age for election to consul was 40 for patricians and 42 for plebeians. All the exorbitant powers to the Senate or to other magistrates belonged to the two consuls. Thanks to Varro we know the names of the two consuls of each year from the fifth century. ac, even if there are a few years left.
In extraordinary events the consuls received from the senate the full powers for Senatus Consultum Ultimum that is the last measure of the senate with the formula " Caveant consules ne quid detrimenti res publica capiat " that is, "The consuls should see to it that the state does not have any damage".
There were:
in the first half of the second century. BC to regulate the Bacchic mysteries in Rome,
during the rise to power of the tribune of the plebs Gaius Gracchus, in 121 BC,
on the occasion of Lepidus' march on Rome in 77 BC,
in the conspiracy of Catiline in 63 BC,
when Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC
❤
42:30 why wouldn't it make sense that people vote for popular people? that's exactly how it works now, that's why hundreds of millions go into publicity in democracies.
Man I'd kill to be a soul-king
🇮🇹 ✋🏻 THE SENATE AND THE ROMAN PEOPLE
Meanwhile, Rome began its role as conqueror of the Mediterranean first and of Europe later, especially between the third and second centuries BC and its government was represented on the epigraphs with the acronym
SPQR, which at first seems to mean (see the - Vocabulary of Latin language of Castiglioni and Mariotti) "Senatus Populusque Quiritium Romanus", that is: "the Senate and the Roman People of the Quirites"; the quirite was in fact the citizen of ancient Rome who enjoyed full civil, political and even military rights.
The quirite, however, was at first the Sabine people who worshiped the God Quirinus, which suggests that the Sabines had a large part in early Roman law, on the other hand it is known that the Sabines had the laws on man-woman relationships published as a guarantee to accept coexistence with the Romans.
The most widely used meaning, and perhaps subsequent to the first, was "Senatvs PopvlvsQve Romanvs" that is "the Senate and the Roman People" an abbreviation and a symbol that embodies the power of the Roman Republic: the Senate and the people, that is, the two classes of patricians and plebeians who were the foundation of the Roman state.
During the Republic only magistrates could go to the senate, first only censors, consuls and praetors were admitted, then also former aediles, former tribunes of the plebs and former quaestors. Every five years the censors compiled the list of senators, filling vacant posts and, in rare cases, expelling the unworthy. After the terrible defeat of Canne where ninety senators perished, the staff of the senate was completed with 197 men also taken from the equestrian order.
The cursus honorum contained a set of both political and military offices. Each office had a minimum age for election, and a minimum interval for obtaining the next office, as well as laws prohibiting reiterating a particular office.
Silla raised the number of Quaestors to 20 and their entry into the Senate depended after him on the management of the police headquarters and in a small part on the tribunate of the plebs, until it was included as compulsory in the cursus honorum after the police headquarters, for which the election of the senators came to depend only on popular suffrage.
@Thersites the Historian What are we supposed to make of all of this "extra content" in the comments from this guy?
Gluteus Maximus... The Nicki Minaj of Rome
🇮🇹😉THE THREE CAREERS (part I)
From the numerous inscriptions of the imperial age it was possible to deduce that the cursus honorum was divided into three categories: senatorial career, equestrian career, lower career.
The first was open to those who belonged to the senatorial nobility either by birthright or by being admitted (in principle, by concession of the emperor); the second to those who belonged to the class of knights; the last to those who were outside both the senatorial order and the equestrian order.
There was a minimum income for belonging to the two orders which was 1,400,000 sesterces, a necessary condition, but of course not sufficient. In the epigraphs, the titles of the offices generally follow one another either in the direct (chronological) order or in the reverse order, to that in which they were actually covered, therefore from the highest to the lowest (eg: consul, praetor, edile , tribune of the plebs, quaestor). But even in the direct order the highest judiciary was mentioned first.
Priestly functions also cited earlier the higher judiciary made in the beginning (eg praetor, pontiff, quaestor, tribune of the people, building).
SENATORY CAREER
The main positions of the senatorial career, both republican and imperial, were:
- the police headquarters,
- the tribunate of the plebs (accessible only to plebeians),
- plebeian edility (accessible only to plebeians),
- curule edility ( accessible only to patricians),
- the court of law,
- the consulate.
But the compulsory passage from one to the other step was formally imposed only in 180 BC by the lex Villia annalis, which established the minimum age for candidates and, it seems, contemplated only the scale of the three Curuli offices of the police headquarters, district court and consulate. , leaving optional the plebeian positions of the tribunate and of the building, and that of the curule building. A very unbalanced system on the part of the patricians that ended up being unhinged.
REFORM AUGUSTEA
Augustus, in the state reorganization of 27 BC, established:
- mandatory step for the plebeians, between the police headquarters and the magistrate's court, the tribunate of the plebs or the edilities (both the plebeian and the curule edility, now accessible even to the plebeians);
- the patricians could instead pass directly from the police headquarters to the magistrate's court, optional the curule building.
It was for reasons of fairness as annually there were 10 posts for plebeian tribunes and 4 for plebeian builders, altogether fourteen, in front of only 2 posts for curuli builders. If the patricians had to pass through the only two building posts available to access the court, their career would be considerably delayed.
VIGINTIVIRATUS
Augustus established military service as a tribune and, first, one of the offices of the vigintiviratus (to which Augustus himself had reduced the vigintisexviratus of the republican period) as obligatory steps for the police headquarters. The following offices were part of the vigintivirato:
- the tresviri capitales , also called tresviri nocturni, established at the beginning of the third century. BC who had the task of:
helping the higher magistrates in civil and criminal jurisdiction,
supervising the prisons,
carrying out death sentences,
providing for the night police, etc .;
- the silver auro tresviri auro flando feriundo (IIIviri aaaff) or monetales,
who took care of the minting of coins on behalf of the senate; starting from 16 BC only the bronze one;
- the quattuorviri viis in urbe purgandis , also known as viarum curandarum,
who took care of the maintenance of the streets of Rome alongside the builders;
- the decemviri stlitibus iudicandis ,
who attended the trials debated on the state of freedom of citizens (eg, whether one was free or a slave). From Augusto they had the direction of the tribunal of the centumvirs for the trials relating to the inheritances, under the guidance of a praetor.
To these four colleges in the republican period were added two others:
- i duoviri viis extra (propiusve) urbem(Romam passus mille) purgandis ,
which are mentioned in the lex Iulia municipalis and which were suppressed by Augustus around the year 20 BC, when he instituted the cura viarum;
- the quattuorviri iure dicundo Capuam Cumas
elected after 124 BC to replace the praefecti Capuam Cumas first appointed by the urban praetor to exercise, as his appointees, the jurisdiction in the ten Campania districts: Capua, Cumae, Casilinum, Volturnum, Liternum, Puteoli, Acerrae , Suessula, Atella, Calatia. The college of IIIIviri id Capuam Cumas was also suppressed in 13 BC by Augustus.
Therefore the steps of the senatorial career for the plebeians (much more numerous than the patricians) during the principality were:
1) one of the offices of the vigintivirato,
2) legion tribunate,
3) police headquarters,
4) tribunate or building, (patricians were exempt)
5) court of law,
6) consulate.
There were also offices reserved for former quaestors, others higher for former praefectors (e.g. the command of a legion with the title of legatus Augusti legionis), others even higher for former consuls (e.g. the praefectura urbi ).
🇮🇹✋🏻SENATUSCONSULTUM
The senate was usually convened and presided over by a consul or praetor, the ius agendi cum patribus. In the deliberation of the rallies the magistrate had to bring the relative proposal (ferre ad populum) to citizenship and, if the citizens agreed, he had to report the resolution to the Senate (referre ad senatum) and ask for its ratification.
The vote to reach the senatoconsulto took place in four phases: formulation of the question by the president, call of each senator to express his opinion, formulation of the question by the president based on the opinions heard and finally voting on the question.
The senators in favor of the proposal to be voted sat on one side and those against the other, so it was said: "pedibus in sententiam ire" and here the veto of the tribunes of the plebs was not allowed. Following the lex Publilia Philonis of 339 BC, the Senate could no longer decide but only give a non-binding preventive opinion.
On the important crimes against the Res publica, however, for which the death penalty was foreseen, it was the people who decided the preliminary "senatus consultum". In fact, if even one of the tribunes of the plebs had opposed the veto, the Senate not only could not even meet. The senatoconsulto then gave rise to a report that was kept in the aerarium located in the temple of Saturn where the budgets, the treasury and the state archives were kept.
The "Senatus Consultum Ultimum" or "Last decision of the Senate", or even the "Senatus consultum de re publica defendenda" or "Senate decision for the defense of the republic" was a senatorial decree issued in case of emergency that was typical of last phase of the Republic.
The senatus consultum ultimum was the "martial law" (or "Law of Mars") which is still called this today, and was promulgated in case of very serious danger and need: the magistrates were authorized to proceed immediately, all guarantees were suspended constitutional, such as the inviolability of the tribunes of the plebs and the "provocatio ad populum".
The consultum was used:
- 1st half of the 2nd century BC to regulate the Bacchic mysteries in Rome,
- 123 Gaius Gracchus, the younger brother who was later assassinated, met
- 121 BC against Saturnino
- 100 BC against Lucio Appuleio Saturnino and Gaius Servilius Glaucia
- 83 BC against Lucio Cornelio Silla
- 77 BC against Marco Emilio Lepido
- 63 BC against Lucio Sergio Catilina
- 62 BC against Metello Nepote
- 52 BC due to the riots following the killing of Publius Clodio Pulcro
- 49 BC when crossing the Rubicon by Caesar,
- 48 BC against Marcus Celio Rufus
- 47 BC against Lucio Trebellio and Publio Cornelio Dolabella
- 43 BC against Marco Antonio
- 43 BC against Octavian
- 43 BC in favor of Octavian, as cancellation of the previous one
- 40 BC to condemn Quinto Salvidieno Rufo Salvio
- 40 BC to delegitimize the siege of Perugia.
With the advent of the principality, the Senate lost the faculty of the consultum.
🇮🇹🧐THE DICTATOR
the dictatorship born in Rome?
Strabo wrote:
- The Lucanians are of Samnite lineage but having defeated the Posidoniati and their allies in the war they came into possession of their cities. In all ordinary periods, and it is true, their government was democratic, but in times of war a king was chosen by the magistrates in charge. Now they are Romans . -
The Lucanians too had therefore a dictator.
We also know that in the Latin cities there was a dictator, an annual magistrate, of which we have sure testimony for Aricia, Lanuvio and Nomento, and Cato quotes from an ancient document a dictator of the Latin league. Therefore the dictator is not a Roman prerogative.
However for Rome the sources give it founded in 501 or 498 BC, citing T. Larcio or M. Valerio as the first dictators. Valerio was eliminated, but since the Valeria people, powerful even in late times, often assumed arbitrary honors, it is believed that the first dictator was Tito Larcio, whose age (about 500 BC) is attested by the consular splendor and the name of his magister equitum Spurius Cassius, author of the treaty of alliance with the Latins that bears his name (foedus cassianum).
So Rome did not invent the dictatorship, therefore the absolute power pro tempore (because tyranny had existed for a long time) but it used it for a long time, practically up to the empire. Why was it so widely adopted? Because the Romans had a great rational and therefore organizational capacity. They always adopted the best expressions of other peoples, they were not afraid of change. They also had a great love of country and for this reason they knew how to choose the best men to drive and to fight.
The power of the dictator was endowed with temporariness, fullness of power and the particular procedure for designating the dictator.
The power of the dictator was absolute and could not be controlled by any institution or magistrate. He could suspend all other magistrates provided with imperium or keep them in their office, but subordinate to himself. He was originally chosen from among the patricians: only from 356 the dictatorship was also accessible to the plebeians.
Although the great scholar Theodor Mommsen believes that the Roman dictatorship was an extraordinary magistracy, the sources do not show any distinctions between ordinary and extraordinary magistracies.
It is also difficult to consider the dictator as a magistracy, because unlike all the magistracies of the republican age, he did not have: magistrates, - instead it was dictus, that is appointed, by a consul in agreement with the other consul and with the senate, following a ritual that provided for the appointment at night, in silence, facing east, and in Roman territory.
Indeed, Cicero and Varro link the etymology of the term to this particular appointment procedure.
The dictator, appointed as his lieutenant, the magister equitum (commander of the cavalry), and it is likely that this was the ancient commander of the infantry, the magister populi, and this would explain the ancient prohibition for him to ride a horse.
The dictatorship declined in the century. III above all due to the enlargement of the power of the Senate and the multiplication of magistrates endowed with empire; so that the dictator became both useless and suspect to the senatorial oligarchy.
The last dictator with military powers (rei gerundae causa) is from 216; the last "comitiorum habendorum causa" dates back to 202. The dictatorship was renewed by Silla, who got the title of "dictator republicae constituendae" in 82 and deposed it in 79. Then Caesar, after a first brief dictatorship in 49, he then had himself nominated in 48 dictator for an indefinite period and in 46 annual dictator for the duration of ten years. After the death of Caesar the dictatorship was never renewed, because the emperors were born.
The dictatorship was resorted to only in extraordinary cases:
- particular dangers from external enemies,
- riots,
- serious impediment to the operation of the consul who appointed him.
When there was a need to appoint a dictator, the Senate issued a decree, the senatus consultum , which authorized the consuls to appoint one, who took office immediately. Often the dictator remained in office until the danger had ceased, and then resigned and returned the powers granted to him.
However, he did not remain in office for more than six months, and he resigned once the year of office of the consul who had appointed him expired.
The dictator was endowed with summum imperium , that is, the faculty of issuing orders that no one could escape, uniting within himself the power of the two consuls, and for this he was accompanied by twenty-four lictors.
Furthermore, he was not subject to the limitations of the tribunes of the plebs nor to the limit of the "provocatio ad populum", the possibility that the people could transform the death penalty of a person sentenced to death into another penalty if requested by the convict.
For this reason his lictors also turned inside the pomerium with the axes inserted in the lictor beams.
All the other magistrates were subordinate to him.
However, it seems that later the dictators had to bow to both the tribunes and the provocatio.
Ordinary magistrates (such as consuls and praetors) remained in office, but became subordinate to the dictator.In the event that they disobeyed the dictator's orders, they could also be forced to resign.
And while a dictator could ignore the right of Provocatio, that is, the right of pardon by the plebs to a condemned man who turned to it, but this right, as well as the independence of the tribunes of the plebs, in theory also continued to exist. during the dictatorship.
His power was equivalent to the sum of the powers of two consuls together, with no control over his work by any governing body. Thus, when there was this need, it was as if Rome were returning to the monarchical period for six months, with the dictator taking the place of the ancient monarchical king.
He was then accompanied by twenty-four lictors outside the pomerium and twelve inside (as it was for the king), on the contrary a consul had twelve outside the pomerium and six inside.
As an external sign of the provocatio ad populum the lictors who preceded the consuls, when they were in the city of Rome, wore the fasces without ax, indicating that the magistrate lacked the power to deliver capital punishment. Outside Rome, as happened on the occasion of military campaigns, power was generally full, and the lictors therefore had the bundles with the axes. Inside Rome, however, the dictator had lictors with axes in the bundles.
The normal government was dissolved and everything passed into the hands of the dictator, who had absolute power over the res publica. He then appointed a Magister equitum (cavalry commander) to be used as his young subordinate. The last dictator was appointed in 202 BC. After this date the extreme emergencies were managed through a senatorial decree; senatus consultum ultimum, corresponding today to the state of emergency.
In this way the normal civil government ceased and martial law was declared, investing the two consuls with dictatorial power. There are many reasons for this change. Until 202 BC, dictators were often appointed to quell the riots of the plebs. In 217 BC, a law was passed which gave popular assemblies the right to appoint dictators, removing the monopoly of the aristocracy, which had had it until then.
🇮🇹💪🏻💪🏻💪🏻THE ROMAN PEOPLE
Publio Annio Floro: " If we consider the Roman people as if they were a single man and carefully examine their entire historical cycle, how it began, how it grew, how it almost reached a certain flowering of youth, how it has aged, so to speak, yes they will find four degrees of development. The first period under the kings lasted about four hundred years, during which the Roman people fought with the neighboring peoples in the surroundings of the same city: this will be childhood. Proceeding from the consuls Brutus and Collatino to the consuls Appio Claudius and Quintus Fulvio (the people) extends for one hundred and fifty years, during which he subdued Italy: this was the most intense period for men and for arms, and therefore it could be defined (his) adolescence.
Later up to Caesar Augustus there were one hundred and fifty years, during which he pacified the whole earth: here there is now the very youth of the empire and I would almost say the robust maturity. From Caesar Augustus up to our time there have been no less than two hundred years, during which the people almost aged and weakened due to the inertia of the Caesars, except that under the emperor Trajan they moved their muscles and beyond hope of all the old age of the empire invigorates as if its youth had been restored. "
This not disinterested ovation to Trajan is not true, the Roman people obtained during the republic, but at the cost of a civil war, equal or almost equal rights between patricians and plebeians, and had by Caesar Octavian a notable recognition of the rights of women. .
The image above is the "Genius of the Roman people."
Surely he had much more of it than today, and was feared more than today by the rulers, and he took to the streets to assert himself much more than today.
According to tradition, it was the first king of Rome, Romulus, who dictated the first military and legal political laws. But the choice of kings was up to the Roman people and when this right was violated with the Tarquins, the people drove out the monarchy and founded the Republic.
"The Roman people, having driven out the kings, established the Consulate "
The Latin saying:" Vox populi vox Dei ", that is, the voice of a people is the voice of a God.
SPQR senatus populusque romanus - the senate and the Roman people
The inscription was emblazoned in the banners of the Roman legions and carved on every new monument in ancient Republican Rome.
But in Rome the holder of sovereignty was not so much the senate as the populus Romanus Quiritium . The senate had only auctoritas, which was exercised in the senatus consultum , that is the right of the senators to advise the magistrates in the measures to be taken and in the proposals to be made to the people.
Instead it was up to the people to decide on war and peace, and in the appeal between the death sentence and the sentence to corporal punishment. It was always the people who ratified a covenant pact, the end of a war or a peace treaty, making each of these acts executive or not. Thus the people had a very broad sphere of competence with a democratic type of government.
But more importantly, the people could choose the magistrates and thereby determine the composition of the senate, since the senate was made up of former magistrates, later also by members of the lower judiciary up to the quaestors.
On the occasion of the elections, the people gathered in the army headquarters on Campo Marzio, but the women did not vote. Like the army, the electoral body was also divided into centuries called comitia centuriata . Each century had one vote, so that the 1st class, made up of those who could access the consulate, with its 98 votes to 95, had an initial advantage over the mass of voters, often making voting unnecessary.
The Tribunes of the Plebs For the election of the Tribunes, the plebs, according to the provisions of the lex Publiha , promulgated in 471 BC at the end of a civil war, went divided by district, tribus , to the comitia tributa .
At first there were only 4 city districts, later also 17 provincial ones called tribus rusticae , and finally, starting from 241 BC, 35 tribes, each with one vote. The task of the tribunes of the plebs, which at the beginning were 2, from 241 onwards increased to 5, then to 10, to protect the plebeians from the arbitrators of the magistrates.
This right, called ius intercedendi or ius auxilii, did not naturally extend to the battlefield, where obedience was fundamental to the salvation of the state.
But above all the people had the right of veto, which allowed them to appeal against the resolutions of the senate and the orders of the magistrates, and to impose the resolutions of the people, that is, the plebiscites through popular assemblies convened by virtue of the ius agendi cum plebe . Right almost never exercised today in the civil world.
This right was based on the priority of the plebs, or, as tradition says, on a further organization of the plebs to "state within the state". Its relationship with the resolutions of the totality of the people, that is, with the legesit remained under discussion until 287, when the lex Hortensia sanctioned the full equality of rights between patricians and plebeians.
The auxiliary construction magistrates of the tribunes were the aediles plebis , also elected during the tribute rallies, exercising the jurisdiction of the market and, by virtue of the ius prensionis , that is the right of the tribunes to arrest the reluctant, also the police power. At their side were the aediles curules , in whose office, from 338 onwards, plebeians and patricians alternated regularly. It was up to the curules to organize the shows on the occasion of the holidays. The higher jurisdiction was in the hands of the praetor urbanus . From 241 onwards there was a praetor at his side, here inter peregrinos ius dicit and to whom during the military campaigns it was up to replace the consul; 6 lictors were assigned to him for this purpose. The edicta praetorum , published year by year, made known the legal principles followed. ruclips.net/user/sgaming/emoji/7ff574f2/emoji_u1f4aa_1f3fb.png
🇮🇹 ✋🏻 THE ROMAN SENATOR
The term "senate" derives from the Latin senex, which means elder, because the members of the senate were initially the oldest of the Roman people. According to tradition, the senate of Romulus was made up of 100 patrician members, who formed the "council of elders", only males with experience and wisdom, similar to the tribal order.
" Romulus, after he founded Rome, chose one hundred of the oldest citizens whom he called senators for old age. He reigned and did all things with the council and with the help of the senators. The number of senators was almost identical under the other Roman kings. , but after the expulsion of the kings, when the republic was established, the number of senators increased because the men who had held the highest magistracies, that is, the police headquarters, the civil servant, the tribune of the plebs, the praetorate, the censorship and the consulate , became senators by right. The senators were also called patricians, since they were considered the guardians and defenders of the republic (homeland) both in favorable circumstances and in adversity. "
(Eutropio)
The Roman Senate (Senatus romanus) was the most authoritative institutional assembly in ancient Rome, the meaning of which was "assembly of the elderly", whose members were called Patres (fathers from which homeland, ie land of the fathers, and patricians). The assembly was established in the royal age by Romulus, and survived even after the fall of the Roman Empire until the seventh century.
Traditionally, it was Romulus who instituted a senate of 100 members (Liv., I, 8), divided into ten decuriae, which each had to have originally ten members and always 100 members had the senates of the cities founded by Rome.
But the normal number of senators in historical age is 300, a number relevant to the royal age with three tribes and thirty curiae. Probably Tito Tazio, Tullo Ostilio and Tarquinio Priscus added Sabine or Alban senators or minores gentes.
The first Roman families, called gentes, were formed by an aggregation of families under a common patriarch, called pater. Each of the pater, considered the founders of the various families, formed the federal council called the Senate which elected a king. When he died, power returned to the patres who elected another king.
I made it to “Campus Marty-us”
🇮🇹💪🏻THE POWERS OF THE SENATE IN THE REPUBLICAN ERA
- the consultative power, that is, to be consulted before passing a law;
- to control the priestly colleges and found temples;
- to control the imperium militiae;
- to authorize the draft,
- to control war operations by supplying the legions with grain, wages and clothing;
- extend the office of commanders, after the consular year, or send another one;
- award the triumph or ovation to the victorious commanders;
- signing peace agreements and treaties;
- declare war;
- receive the submissions of foreign peoples;
- send "legates" to resolve disputes or make suggestions;
- deliberate on the foundation of colonies;
- check the work of the magistrates;
- discuss and approve the bills to be submitted to the rallies;
- promulgate the senatoconsulto;
- decide on crimes committed in Italy that require investigation by the Res publica, such as betrayals, conspiracies, poisonings and assassinations;
when a private individual or a city in Italy needed peace mediation or required an intervention against damage suffered, or for a request for help or protection.
- to appoint the most judges among the members of the Senate, in civil, public or private trials of particular gravity (only in that trial).
- control the aerarium with entrances and exits. Quaestors could not carry out public expenses without having obtained the decree of the senate, with the exception of those requested by the consuls.
- controlled and approved the expense that the censors established every five years for the repair and construction of public buildings.
- the senate could grant the qualification of legatus to a senator who went to the provinces giving him the right to a special treatment.
FOR AGAINST:
- Gaius Gracchus deprived the senators of the privilege of being judges in perpetual matters by returning it to the knights; it was given back to the senators by Silla and, after other events, definitively divided between the two orders by Caesar.
- attendance at the sessions was compulsory under penalty of a fine or a capio pignoris for the absent senator;
- Already from the century. III BC the senators could not give themselves to speculation and were therefore excluded from public contracts;
- they could not have cargo vessels with a capacity exceeding a certain limit, and under the empire the right to lend at interest was also subjected to restrictions.
- The senators were obliged to reside in Rome and could not leave Italy without the permission of the senate; in serious moments they could be ordered not to leave the city.
🇮🇹😉THE THREE CAREERS (part II)
EQUESTRIAN CAREER
The main functions of the career reserved for the characters of the equestrian order were the procurators and the prefectures, but normally to access them one had to have completed a few years of military service with a certain degree. These degrees, which were called militiae equestres, which were three from the beginning of the second century:
1) the prefecture or the tribunate of an auxiliary cohort, that is, the command with the title of praefectus or tribunus of one of those numerous bodies infantry auxiliaries, called cohortes and enlisted outside Italy, who flanked the legions;
2) the tribunate of the legion, or tribunus militum in the legions, which was also the degree to which the young men of the senatorial family performed military service. The Laticlavii were of the senatorial order, and the Angusticlavii of the equestrian order. The clavus was the purple stripe that edged the white tunic of Roman senators and knights; that of the senators was wider (latus) than that of the knights (angustus). In place of the Angusticlavio legion tribunate, the tribunate could be covered in one of the urban bodies, that is, it could be tribunus of one of the cohorts of the vigiles, urbanites, or praetorians;
3) the prefecture of a cavalry wing, that is the command, with the title of praefectus, of one of those numerous auxiliary cavalry corps, called alae and enlisted outside Italy, which flanked the legions. In the cursus honorum equestri the expression a tribus militiis, or a militiis, is frequently used to indicate that the character has fulfilled his military obligation.
In the post-Severian age, another is added to the tres militiae, namely the degree of centurion in the legion (which means that belonging to the equestrian order opens up to socially less elevated classes; previously the knights had served in the legion with the degree of tribuni militum, now with the lowest one of subordinate officer, of centurion), and we speak of quattuor militiae.
After having performed military service in the aforementioned degrees (but it could be enough to cover only one), the character of the equestrian order could access a series of positions called procurations and prefectures.
The procurators were divided into three groups:
- financial offices, and the knights directed them with the title of procuratores,
- offices with administrative or military functions in certain small provincial territories,
- offices assigned to the palace and the imperial chancellery.
The prefectures:
- some of an administrative nature (praefectus annonae, praefectus vehiculorum, i.e. head of the postal service),
- others of a military nature: praefectus vigilum, that is, the commander of the corps of vigiles stationed in Rome; the praefectus praetorio, that is the commander of the praetorians; the praefectus Aegypti, that is the governor of Egypt, the only important province entrusted by Augustus not to a senatorial governor, but to a knight.
Over time, however, the praefectus praetorio became a kind of alter ego of the emperor.
The characters of the equestrian order bear the title of "vir egregius"; those who reach the highest positions "vir perfectissimus" and "vir eminentissimus".
When in the second half of the third century the senators were excluded from military commands and provincial governments, these positions were attributed to the equestrian order, with the title of "praefecti legionis" and "praesides provinciae".
From the fourth century. all the offices once reserved for the characters of the equestrian order disappeared and were entrusted to the senatorial class, so that the cursus honorum equestre disappeared. To cover the consulate it was no longer necessary to have gone up the cursus honorum, but for the benevolence of the emperor.
The highest functions of the senatorial career were:
- praefectus urbi (who presided over the senate and was the link between it and the emperor),
- praefectus praetorio,
- proconsules
- comites
In fact the old title of vir clarissimus became vir spectabilis and, even more elevated, vir inlustris, which belonged to praefectus urbi and praefectus praetorio.
As for the provincial governors, a higher rank than all the others belonged to the proconsules of Asia, Africa and Achaia, who were not subordinate to either the vicars or the prefects of the praetorium, but depended directly on the emperor, in whose name they administered justice. . At the head of the other provinces, in decreasing order of importance, there were consulares or correctores or praesides.
LOWER CAREER
Those who did not belong to either the senatorial order or the equestrian order could access four main categories:
- in the civil administration (often entrusted to the imperial freedmen),
- in the military functions of the lowest rank up to the degree of centurion,
- in the civil and religious offices exercised in the individual cities,
- in the offices of the corporations.
IN THE CITIES
The offices in the cities (municipalities, colonies) were the same as those of the ancient republican magistracies:
- quaestores,
- aediles (also called duoviri aediles)
- duoviri iure dicundo (IIviri id), called duoviri id quinquennales or simply quinquennales when one they found themselves holding the office in that year in which censorship functions were to be exercised, which happened, as in republican Rome, every five years.
In the cities there was also a senate, which was called ordo decurionum from the name of the decuriones (municipal senators). The offices in the guilds reproduced the municipal ones (aediles, decuriones etc.)
I fucking love your channel man as well as your voice
🇮🇹🤨THE LEGEND
Amulius ousted his brother Numitor to reign alone on Albalonga, killing his sons and forcing his daughter Rhea Silvia to become a vestal because he did not procreate heirs to his throne.
The God Mars, however, saw the girl while she drew water in the sacred wood and raped her, making her pregnant with twins: Romulus and Remus.
Amulius had her condemned and died because she had violated the vow of chastity, but the river Aniene, where the body was thrown, took pity on her and resurrected her. King Amulius, to save them, had the children placed in a basket, entrusting it to the current.
Due to the rains the Tiber had overflowed (which it will do until the twentieth century with the new embankments built for a good eight meters high), flooding the fields of the Velabro, and on that bank, called Cermalus, the basket stopped. Then the waters receded and the twins found themselves at the foot of a fig tree (ficus ruminalis).
For others the basket stopped in a cave at the base of the Palatine Hill, called "Lupercale" because it is sacred to Mars and Fauno Luperco.
A she-wolf, who came down from the mountains to the river to drink, attracted by the cries of the two children, joined them and nursed them. A woodpecker also brought them food, and the woodpecker was sacred to Mars. They were then found by a shepherd named Faustolo, the swineherd of Amulio, who together with his wife Acca Larenzia decided to raise them as children. The hut of Faustolo and Laurenzia was on the Palatine, in the "Germalo" area.
Plutarch tells (Life of Romulus):
It is said that the twins were brought to Gabii to learn the use of writing and everything that children of noble origins usually have to learn .. they were called Romulus and Remus in reference to the breast ... of the she-wolf ... Romulus seemed to possess greater capacity of judgment and an innate political perspicacity, showing in the relations with the neighbors for the right to graze and hunting a natural predisposition to command rather than to submission.
And Livio adds (Ab Urbe condita):
Strengthened in body and spirit, they not only faced the beasts, but ambushed bandits laden with booty. They shared the spoils of the robberies with the shepherds and shared serious and playful things with them, while the number of young people grew day by day. The twins were then attacked by bandits who wanted to take revenge on the loot they had stolen from them earlier. Romulus was saved, but Remus was captured and led by King Amulius, accused of theft in the lands of the king's brother, so he was brought to Numitor for him to judge. After several questions Numitor recognized his nephew while Romulus arrived and told him the family story. So the two brothers together with some companions killed Amulius and returned the throne of Albalonga to Numitore.
Just a time stamp. 23:03
🇮🇹👍🏻THE ROMAN LAWS
"According to the Romans the law was properly the decision of the people in the assemblies 'in lex est quam populus comitiis sciverit'. The four great magistrates: the consul, the praetor, the dictator and the interre the only ones who could deal with the people, even in the extraordinary cases of the soldiers who took the place of the consuls, the decemvirs and triumvirs enjoyed this right.
The laws were proposed in the field of Flaminio called the Circus, in the wood of Petilino, but more often in the Forum or Campo Marzio. Not every day was suitable for this, so it was necessary to wait for the Latium days or rather that the sky with the wonders had not declared itself against the assembly. The magistrate who was to propose the law first composed it with the help of a council and then presented it to the Senate to obtain the votes. After these preliminaries he exhibited it in public written on a table so that the people could examine it. It lasted on display for three consecutive market days which was held from nine to nine days. When the time had elapsed, the one who had to propose the law gathered the people and after having it read by an usher, he asked the assembly's consent.
If the law passed, he carved it out of bronze plates. The table was placed in the public treasury. Received it could only be annihilated by the people and said 'abrogatur lex cum prorsus tollitur'. Sometimes it was derogated only by modifying it in some part 'derogation sur legi cum detrahitur' and when, without any mention of this, another was published that was totally contrary to it, the term 'abrogari' was used. Festus 'Abrogare est legis infirmandae caussa aliam ferre' The first Romani legislator was Romulus. "
The name of the law usually comes from the gens of the proposing magistrate:
- consul for the lex comitialis,
- tribune of the plebs for the Scythian plebis),
declined to the feminine form, because in Latin law (lex, legis, nominative plural leges) is a word of feminine gender. When a law is drafted by two consuls, both names are marked, with the eldest's name marked first.
The general denominations were:
- Lex agraria - Law governing the distribution of public lands
- Lex annalis - Establishes age requirements and time intervals for the Cursus honorum
- Lex curiata de imperio - Law by which the Comitia Curiata ratified the choice of a new king, also confirming the adoption of Octavian as son of Gaius Julius Caesar
- Lex frumentaria - Law that regulated the price of wheat
- Lex sumptuaria - Law that regulated the use of luxurious objects and public manifestations of wealth.
he was a warmonger and his last name was Hostilius... please tell me this is the root of the word hostile
In all likelihood, that is the origin of the English word hostile, although I don't know that for certain.
Don't forget Commodus, who helped flush the Empire down the crapper.
@@Oddball5.0 i wonder is Ignoramus was just a not so bright Roman
🇮🇹🧐THE NEPOTISM
The cursus honorum, that is the course of honors achieved or to be achieved, officially began with ten years of military service in the Roman cavalry or in the staff of a general who was a relative or friend of the family. Nepotism was not condemned, because every prestigious family had to continually keep up their prestige, either by fighting valiantly in war and or by building public buildings at their own expense in favor of the people. The fact is, however, that the member of the prestigious family had to keep this prestige high, demonstrating valor and ability in war, and magnanimity towards the state and citizens in peacetime. Therefore, nepotism was a guarantee of great commitment in order not to disfigure the gens and the ancestors.
Roman candidates for public office were therefore chosen for their personal reputation and that of their family. It was also true that the member of a glorious family was raised to the respect and value of this glory that he absolutely had to emulate, so no one dared to disavow these values, even at the cost of his life.
Candidates who came from older families were therefore favored because they could use the skills of their ancestors for their election propaganda.
BCE. You should just use BC. If you're going to use the same 0 year then you should just use BC. Your "before current era" starts at the same year as BC? What a coincidence. It's not because I'm a christian zealot, it's just annoying political correctness.
I agree. You know, it is very funny how things turn up and down... In the East, with the fall of 'communism' we started saying BC, instead of BCE 😁
...But..., I have to point out that there was no Zero year and that's why the new millenium started with 2001, not in 2000 :] As the centuries and decades start with year x1 and end with x0, to be correct mathematically:)
Nerd
Let people say what they feel like saying? If ur that upset about someone saying BCE instead of BC then chill out bruh doesn’t matter !
@@Arrowstrike50 That doesn't apply to me? why don't you just chill out bruh? I say what i want.
@@buck-johnson agree to disagree I guess 😭
🇮🇹🤓FIRST ROMAN SETTLEMENTS
he oldest settlements of what will later become Rome date back to very remote times, even to Neanderthal man. The oldest seems to be in the Valchetta area, with human remains from 65,000 years ago, another in via di Torre Spaccata from 60,000 years ago.
We move on to the Iron Age with the arrival of the Latins of Indo-European descent, therefore not indigenous, first a Latin-Faliscan group and then an Umbrian-Sabello group. Those same Latins who met Aeneas, according to tradition, when, fleeing from Troy, he landed in Lazio. Rome was formed with the fusion of many different people, because where different civilizations converge there is an exchange that amplifies knowledge.
No civilization can boast a mass of people and races like Rome, a point of connection between the West and the East, also because it stretches out both on the river and on the sea. In ancient times the ground was covered with forests and dangerous for wild beasts, coast-to-coast navigation, or by river, was the least dangerous way to move.
The Falisci occupied the Tiber valley, between the Cimini and Sabatini mountains, while the Latins occupied the Latium vetus, the ancient Lazio, which ran from the right bank of the Tiber to the Alban Hills, bordering the Etruscans north of the Tiber. The Volsci, and in part the Ernici, instead occupied the south of Lazio; the Aurunci, and a little the Rutuli, the Lazio Campana coast; the Sabines the Apennine area to the north, the Equi to the east. It is probable that the Hellespontus in Asia Minor (current Turkey) contributed to the union of cultures, when around 1100 BC, Troy fell and the survivors took refuge in Lazio.
Excavations at the Foro Boarium have uncovered some Greek pottery from the 8th century BC which already showed commercial relations with the Hellenic colonies at the time.
The Palatine huts, of which there are numerous traces, had a shape between the rectangular and the elliptical, in all similar to those of the hut urns of the same period, found in the archaic burial ground of the Forum, which served to contain the ashes of the deceased and they imitated the house where he had lived.
The large holes along the edge and in the center were used to house the support poles of the roof, while smaller holes, on both sides of the doorway, had to support a particular and light cover in front of the door itself.
The traces of the hearth were very clear next to the central hole.
Their dating is from the 8th century BC, that is, fully corresponding to the date of the foundation of Rome, moreover, the remains of a palace have recently been found.
The prehistoric tombs next to the foundations of the disappeared Arch of Augustus, in the Roman Forum, a culture similar to the proto-Villanovan one, with unadorned vases, probably from the 1st millennium BC, in the Bronze Age, are evidence of these settlements. A necropolis necessarily derives from a village of permanent dwellings.
Another testimony is the necropolis next to the temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina with prehistoric burials, also in the Roman Forum, next to villages of huts, ranging from the 9th to the 8th century. BC, then reserved only for children's tombs until the 7th century BC
The ancient inhabitants of Rome inhumed, unlike the later Romans who mainly incinerated the dead. Burial is characteristic of matriarchal or matriarchal societies, while cremation is patriarchal and nomadic. Which means that the ancestors of Rome were matriarchal, in fact returning the body to the earth presupposes a devotion to Mother Nature or Earth.
Still finds from the Bronze Age in the Sant'Omobono area, at the church of Sant'Omobono, at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, with two temples, of the Dea Fortuna and of the Mater Matuta, from the sixth century. BC, two primordial Goddesses worshiped as Mothers of the pantheon, in short, Great Mothers of the Gods.
The two twin temples were built on the area already occupied by protohistoric huts and only one has been excavated because the second is under the church. The Goddess Fortuna is the Greek Ananke, against whom, as Homer says, the Gods can do nothing, or the Roman Fatum, the one who guides the fortunes. It is no coincidence that in Palestrina there was the temple, Cicero talks about it, of Fortuna Primigenia, in whose temple lots were cast, that is, the dice to predict the future.
In the center of Rome almost all the churches are built on pagan temples, to make people forget the old gods and because the people there used to go there. In addition, you could take advantage of the marbles and columns. The famous Cosmatesque pavements so frequent in Roman churches are nothing more than Roman marbles that have been broken up and reassembled to a design, and many of the columns are ancient Roman. To get an idea just visit the Pantheon where the gigantic Roman marbles are preserved intact.
It seems that the temple of Fortuna dates back to Servius Tullius, and sacred prostitution, or Ierodulia, was practiced there, which was used throughout the Mediterranean and in all ancient civilizations, especially as a female priesthood (the male one is rarer). The sanctuaries were abandoned in the 4th century BC, with the end of the Etruscan monarchy.
Maybe get out that large room when recording. The audio is crap and echo'y.
Latin --> la-tin
Latium --> lay-chium
Ok.
Latin is pronounced with a t. It’s not ladn
🇮🇹💪🏻💪🏻💪🏻PROVOCATIO AD POPULUM
The provocatio ad populum is an institution of Roman public law, introduced by the Lex Valeria de provocatione of 509 BC (drawn up by the consul Publio Valerio Publicola) and applied in particular in the republican period. The condemned man thus remitted the sentence to the rallies, in their capacity as supreme court.
Scholars are uncertain or conflicting about a provocatio ad populum or similar institutions in the royal age, when the king had full jurisdictional powers, but in which it is possible that the assembly of patricians would meet for the most serious crimes.
The prevailing opinion of writers in the republican age, therefore the primary sources, maintained that such an institution existed even in the royal age: Cicero, a very shrewd and documented author, in fact writes: "The books of the pontiffs say that the provocatio was also under the kings, and the writings of the greetings also say so "" provocationem autem etiam a regibus fuisse declarant pontificii libri, significant our etiam augurales ".
The institution of provocatio introduced a right of the condemned to death to require that the sentence imposed on him be reconsidered by a city assembly only after the approval of the Lex Valeria, while for the preceding period the tradition refers only to a faculty of the rex in cases in which, at its discretion, it seemed more appropriate to refer the decision to a town meeting.
The Roman people, to guide the politics of the state, used to gather in various assemblies called:
- Comitia Curiata,
- Comitia Centuriata
- Comitia tributi
- Concilia plebis
The Comizi Curiati
The comitia curiati were the oldest Roman assembly, according to some only patrician, for others also plebeian but with lesser powers. The Romans used a form of direct democracy, whereby citizen-voters voted for decisions in the assembly. Each assembly was chaired by a magistrate who ruled on both procedural and legal issues. They decided on the "provocatio ad populum".
The only way to control the power of the magistrate was to veto it by other magistrates: that is, either the tribunes of the plebs or the magistrates of higher rank. In a first phase the people expressed themselves 'through' the curiate rallies, then following the law of the XII tables the "provocatio ad populum" took place 'before' the centuriate rallies.
The Comizi Centuriati
It was the only one based on a timocratic (based on possession of property) and gerontocratic (the elderly between 46 and 60 years, had greater political dignity than the iuvenes, young people between 18 and 45 years ). Through the Ceturian rallies the people appointed censors, consuls and praetors,
But they functioned as a court in the death penalty sentences, in the judgment of the crime of high treason and, at least in the republican period, until the end of the second century. BC, could subtract the accused, sentenced to death by the magistrate, who requested it by subjecting him to popular judgment. Appealing to the people, the accused insinuated the suspicion that a persecution motivated by political reasons was taking place against him.
They therefore decided on the "provocatio ad populum".
The Comizi Tributi
They welcomed both patricians and plebeians, and elected the Quaestors, the Curuli aediles, auxiliary offices and, for a certain period, also the pontiff maximum and other priestly offices. In the late Republican era, they conducted most of the trials. They did not decide on the "provocatio ad populum".
The councils of the plebs
They were formed following the secession of the plebs on Monte Sacro in 494 BC to claim the right of the plebs to participate in political life. Thus the tribunes of the plebs and the aediles were created. The deliberations of the plebs gathered in the assembly convened by the tribune of the plebs will take the name of plebiscite (plebiscites). Of course, patricians will be excluded from these assemblies. They did not decide on the "provocatio ad populum".
In the Republican age the right to provocatio was then subjected to various restrictions by the senate and the magistrates, jealous of their jurisdictional prerogatives, but nevertheless remained. In the imperial age, this institution disappeared, replaced by the appeal to the emperor.
This interpretation is refuted by other scholars, as it would be erroneous to qualify the provocatio as an "appeal to the people", since the appeal presupposes the previous judgment of a magistrate, a judgment that is lacking here: in that phase of Roman law, the people are in fact already holder of its own jurisdiction, the function of iudicatio, which coexists together with the coercion of the king.
In this interpretation, therefore, the provocatio has the function of "buffering" any excesses of imperium, first of the king and then of the magistrates, but the role of the assembly is not that of appeal, but of real judgment, in when the act of the magistrate is an act of administration, not an act of jurisdiction.
In the imperial age the provocatio is still attested, but by now the populus is replaced by the emperor. But a new figure is imposed: the Roman citizen by pronouncing the words "Caesarem appello" escaped the jurisdiction of the provincial magistrate and the case was transferred to Rome. St. Paul escaped condemnation for two years thanks to this appeal and was taken to Rome. Augustus loved to transfer the different powers, and his successors imitated him.
The Jurist Paul in "Sententiarum Receptarum libri quinque" writes:
« Iulia de vi publica damnatur qui… civem Romanum antea ad populum provocationem nunc imperatorem appellantem necaverit necarive iusserit. "
(Lex Iulia De Vi Publica, he who kills or orders to kill a Roman citizen who has appealed, before the people or before the emperor, be condemned.
Rome was a sausage party?